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Has been defined differently
Movere: to move or to agitate
Is intense feeling directed at someone or
somethingMotivated state marked by physiological
changes, expressive behavior and mentalexperience
Colors our life
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emotion is usually transitory
emotional experience has a valence
Emotional experience alters thought
processes elicits an action tendency
usually happens without willful intent
Has three components
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strong feeling
Has contextual stimuli
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Affect is general term that covers a broadrange of feelings that people experience
Includes both mood and emotion
Mood: feeling less intense than emotionUsually lacks contextual stimuli
Emotional state extended
Emotion: Intense state
Has contextual stimuli
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Short period
Emotional labor: if employees expressorganizationally desired emotions during
interpersonal transactions, k/a emotionallabor
Effort, planning and control needed toexpress organizationally desired emotion
during interpersonal transaction
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May be harmful in some instances foremployee
Felt vs displayed emotions: Felt emotions are
an individuals actual emotion displayed emotion are those that are
required and considered appropriate in agiven situation
Felt are spontaneous
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Boundaries that shape individuals emotions
Primarily: Organizational and cultural
Every organization has its own boundaries regarding
appropriateness of emotion and emotionalexpression
Eg.: Sports, Bar etc
Such boundaries Shape emotion of employee
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Emotional expression may also be shaped bycultural influences
cultural norms define appropriateness of emotion
Muslim cultures, smiling is frequently taken as asign of sexual attraction
Culture influence is thus one crucial factor inshaping displayed emotions and felt emotions to
some extent
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Emotion has been classified in different ways
Some classified into primary and secondary
Primary emotion: are the emotions, which
are biologically based and are considered tobe universal.
According to Plutchik (1980) fear, surprise,sadness, disgust (aversion or hatred), anger,
anticipation, joy (delight) and acceptance
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Secondary emotions: are the emotions thatare either combination of primary emotionsor that are specific to certain cultures
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Awe: Terror, fright
Remorse: regret, sorry
contempt : disapprove, dislike
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Some psychologists have divided emotioninto positive and negative
create pleasantness are called positive
emotions E.g. : Love, happiness
Positive emotions are good for health
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Negative emotions are the emotions thatcreate state of displeasure in individual
Eg; Anger, Sadness etc
Study about these: you will get handouts
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Goleman
ability, capacity, skill, a self-perceivedability, to identify, assesses, and manages
the emotions of one's self, of others, and ofgroups
Important determiner of success
Measured in terms of EQ (Emotional
intelligence quotient)
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Self awareness: being aware of one's ownfeelings, moods, needs and/or emotions
Self management: ability to manage one's
own emotions and impulses Self motivation: persons internal urge to
maintain and manage emotional behaviour ina stable manner, even when difficult
situations and hurdles arise
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Empathy : ability to sense how others arefeeling
Social skills: ability to handle emotions of
others
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Ability and selection
Decision making
Interpersonal conflict
Deviant workplace behaviorCreativity
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THANK YOU VERY MUCH
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individuals ability to learn
as adjustment capacity of the individual todifferent situations and problems of life
the global capacity of the individual to actpurposefully, to think rationally and to dealwith the situation effectively
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individuals abilities to understand complex
ideas, to adapt effectively to theenvironment, to learn from experience, toengage in various forms of reasoning, and toovercome obstacles by careful thought
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One of the important respects in whichindividuals differ
One of the predictors of success
Measured in terms of Intelligence quotient is an innate (by birth) ability which grows
and is influenced by environment
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Also k/a g factor theory or spearmans theory
According to spearman intelligence consistedof 2 kinds of factors (types of intelligence): a
single general factor, g, and numerousspecific factors (s1, s2, s3, etc.)
g factor was the most important; s factorswere very specific to particular tests
These two factors are highly correlated toeach other
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also called the general ability/intelligence
each individual has one g, present at birthand varies little
common to all mental activities i.e. involvedin all intellectual abilities
e.g. Mechanical ability, musical ability,mathematical ability show a level of
correlation because certain amount of 'g' isrequired in them
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also called specific ability/intelligence
more than one and learned afterward
related to particular intellectual tasks only
mathematical skill requires some g and alsospecific mathematical abilities, such asability to multiply and addition. Similarly,mechanical ability requires some g ability
and mechanical specific ability
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The general quality of a person'sperformance on any area will be high or lowdepending upon the, amount of g possessed
A person poor in g will perform poorly in alltasks and a person high in `g' will do high inall tasks that mainly depend upon g
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Also k/a Multifactor theory or theory ofprimary mental abilities
Developed by L.L. Thurstone, 1938
7 independent sets of mental abilities Verbal comprehension, word fluency,
number, space relationship, memory,perceptual speed, reasoning
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Verbal comprehension: understand themeaning of words
measured by tasks involving vocabulary,
synonyms, antonyms, and readingcomprehension
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Word fluency: ability to quickly generate andmanipulate a large number of words withspecific characteristics
Can be measured by problems like anagram,production of word rapidly
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Number: Ability to quickly and accuratelycarry out mathematical operations
Can be tested by simple arithmetic test
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Spatial visualization: The ability to mentallymanipulate and visualize geometric relations
measured by task requiring manipulation of
geometrical design like block design
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Memory: ability to remember words, letters,numbers and images
recall of sentences, paired words
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Perceptual speed:quickness in perceivingvisual details, similarities etc.
Problems involving finding out missing things,
differentiating between two pictured objects
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Reasoning: ability to derive general ideas andrules from specific information
Analogies and problems solving tasks (like
series)
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Developed in 1983 by Howard Gardner
proposes eight different intelligences(relatively independent to each other) to
account for a broader range of humanpotential in children and adults
Logical-mathematical, Musical, bodilykinesthetic, Linguistic, Spatial,
interpersonal, intrapersonal and naturalist
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Multiple Intelligences several independentmental abilities that allow a person to solveproblems, create products that are valuedwithin ones culture.
Intelligence defined within the context ofculture
In Gardners view, each of the multipleintelligences is linked to an independent
system in brain
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Logical-mathematical intelligence: capacity toanalyze problems logically, carry out mathematicaloperations, and investigate issues scientifically
scientists, mathematicians, engineers, doctors
and economists
Musical intelligence involves skill in theperformance, composition, and appreciation ofmusical patterns
instrumentalists, singers, disc-jockeys, and
composers
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Linguistic Intelligence-- involves sensitivity to
spoken and written language, the ability to learnlanguages
high in writers, lawyers, philosophers, journalists,politicians and teachers
Bodily-kinesthetic intelligence involves thepotential of using one's whole body or parts of thebody to solve problems
athletes, dancers, actors, surgeons, builders and
soldiers
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Spatial intelligence involves the potential torecognize and use the patterns of wide space andmore confined areas
artists, photographers, pilots, painters and
architects
Interpersonal intelligence is concerned with thecapacity to understand the intentions, motivationsand desires of other people
politicians, managers, teachers, and social workers
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Intrapersonal intelligence involves the capacity to
understand oneself, to appreciate one's feelings,fears and motivations
philosophers, psychologists,, writers and scientists
Naturalist intelligence involves the ability to
understand and work effectively in the naturalworld
wild Life Photographer , gardeners and farmers
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proposed by Sternberg in 1984
Three types of intelligence: componential,experiential and contextual
Componential or analytical intelligencerefers to the information processingstrategies that individual uses when he thinks
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mental processes used in learning how tosolve problems
Experiential or creative emphasizes insightand the ability to formulate new ideas
ability to deal with novel situations bydrawing on existing skills and knowledge
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Contextual or practical intelligence: involvesthe ability to grasp, understand and dealwith everyday tasks
ability to adapt to the environment
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Crystallized Intelligence learning from pastexperiences and learning.
Situations that require crystallized intelligence include
reading comprehension and vocabulary exams.
This type of intelligence is based upon facts and rooted inexperiences.
This type of intelligence becomes stronger as we age and
accumulate new knowledge and understanding.
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Fluid Intelligence - the ability to think and reasonabstractly and solve problems. This ability is considered independent of learning,
experience, and education. Examples: solving puzzles and coming up with problem
solving strategies.
Both types of intelligence increase throughout childhoodand adolescence.
Fluid intelligence peaks in adolescence and begins todecline progressively beginning around age 30 or 40.
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Is one of the extremes of intelligence
significantly sub average general intellectualfunctioning accompanied by significantlimitation in adaptive function in certain skillareas such as self care, work, health andsafety
Symptoms should start before18 and IQ
should be below 70
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About 1 percent of general population sufferfrom mental retardation (Sadock and Sadock,2000)
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Mild mental retardation
Moderate mental retardation
Severe mental retardation
Profound mental retardation
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IQ 50-55 to approximately 70
Educable
Mental age 8-11 year
Social adjustment equivalent to that ofadolescents but lack creativeness and normalimaginativeness
Learn very slowly and at most can achieve
high school education
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Do not show sign of brain pathologyordinarily
Early diagnosis, parental assistance can makethese people independent citizens
Majority of MR are mildly retarded
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IQ 35-40 to 50-55
Trainable
Mental age 4-7 year: When adult
Bodily deformities and poor motor co-ordination
Some hostile and aggressive
Some exceptionally good in particular field
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Can do normal routined works like cooking
Physically they look clumsy
Early diagnosis, parental assistance,
adequate training: partial independence inself care, acceptable behavior and economicsustenance in family
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IQ 20-25 to 35-40
Dependent retarded
Motor and speech development severely retarded
and sensory defect (eg. deafness) and handicapcommon
With early parental assistance and special trainingcan develop limited levels of personal hygiene and
self help skills
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Many can to some extent profit from trainingand can perform simple occupational tasksunder supervision
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IQ below 20-25
Life support retarded
Speech development severely retarded
Brain pathology and retarded growth,convulsion, sensory defect are common
Low immune power and short life expectancy
Have to live in custodial care all their life
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GENETIC FACTORS
Fragile X syndrome: breaking off of the end portionof the arm of X sex chromosome
Downs syndrome: caused by presence of an extrachromosome in 21st pair
Phenylketonuria: inherited lack of liver enzyme tobreakdown the amino acid Phenylanaline
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OTHER FACTORS Infection : syphilis or German measles her
child may suffer from brain damage andmental retardation
Toxic agents: toxic agents like carbonmonoxide, lead may cause brain damageduring or after birth and may lead thechild to Mental retardation
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Premature birth, low birth weight and headtrauma
High exposure to Ionizing radiation like X-ray
severe malnutrition of mother or child Severe emotional deprivation of child
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THANK YOU VERY MUCH
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Confidence : once all villagers decided to pray forrain. In the day of praying all prayers gathered & only
one boy came with umbrella, that is the confidence
Trust :Trust should be like feeling of a one year oldbaby. when you throw him in air, he laughs, Because he
knows you will catch him.
Hope : Every night you go to bed, have no assurance toget up alive in the next morning but still you have plansand hopes for the coming day.
Keep confidence , Trust in God & never lose Hopes .
GOOD MORNING TO ALL OF YOU
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According to Sdorow (1995) "memory is the process by whichinformation is acquired, stored in brain & later retrieved".
Memory is an organism's ability to store, retain, and recallinformation.
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Encoding: The process through which information isconverted into a form that can be entered intomemory. Effortful/Automatic
Storage: Retaining in the memory system for longerduration.
Retrieval: process of bringing stored information
into consciousness.
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Sensory memory (or immediate memory):
Short term memory:
Long term memory:
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Sensory memory: very brief period of time 2-5 seconds
Storage capacity high
storage period ranges from fraction of second to4 seconds
Information loss mainly due to decay ofinformation.
Different sensory organ: Different register
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stores limited amount of information forlimited period of time
can store information from 20 to 30
secondsStorage capacity of this memory is 7 2
chunks (or unit) of information at time
Loss of information mainly due to decay
of information and displacement of olderinformation by new information.
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Long term memory is the permanentstorehouse (Relatively permanent)
can store practically unlimited amount ofinformation
forgetting from long term :Inhibition ofinformation, Trace decay, Repression,memory dysfunctions (Like amnesia,
dementia, fugue)
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Attention
and
Recognition
Sensory
MemorySTM
LTMSensory
input
Rehearsal
DOSTI NAHI HONI CHAHIYA RAYMOND JAISI ... SINCE
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DOSTI NAHI HONI CHAHIYA RAYMOND JAISI ... SINCE1925 ,
PEPSI JAISI BHI NAHIN , KI YE DIL MAANGE MORE...
YE HONI CHAHIYA L.I.C. JAISI ,JINDAGI KE SAATH BHI , JINDAGI KE BAAD BHI....
BE GOOD FRIENDS
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apparent loss of information alreadyencoded and stored in long term memory
information Not encoded in LTM not eligiblefor forgetting
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Inhibition (or interference)
Repression
Trace decay
Retrieval problem
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tendency of new memories to impair the retrievalof older memories and vice versa
Types:
1. Proactive Interference: older memories interferewith the retrieval of newer information
Learns task A Learns task BRetention intervalMeasure of Recallof B
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2.Retroactive Interference:
new memories interfere with the retrieval of oldermemories
Learns task A Learns task B Retention interval Measure of Recall A
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Retrieval Problem: Without appropriateretrieval cues we can't find to be retrievedinformation
Associating is better than parroting
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Repression (Motivated forgetting) :tendency tohave difficulty retrieving anxiety arousing orthreatening information
Trace decay: due to the decay of memory traces
With the passage of time through disuse, thesememory traces of learning impressions get weakerand weaker and finally fade away
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Pathological Forgetting Forgetting that can not be described by
normal forgetfulness
Amnesia: partial or complete loss ofmemory
Due to psychological or biological reason
Anterograde and Retrograde
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Apart from being amnesic, patient generallywanders away from his or her familiar
surrounding
Sudden onset
Forgets everything of his previoussorrounding
After sometime forgets everything of new
situation (Fugue state)
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Dementia: Characteristic of old age Impairment or loss of memory, especially
evident in the learning of new information,and of thinking, language, judgment and
other cognitive abilities
Dementia of Alzheimers type
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Working memory module: Active memorysystem
All mental activities are carried out in thismemory
Baddeley in 1992 Model of Working memory
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working memory carries out its action byhelp of three major parts i.e. phonologicalloop, visuospatial sketch pad and centralexecutive
Phonological loop processes informationrelating to the sound of words.
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Visuospatial sketch pad processes visual andspatial information (i.e. information aboutthe visual appearance of objects, such ascolor and shape and where they are located
in space)Central executive supervises and coordinates
the other two components.
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Declarative memory (or explicit memory):Declarative memory is the type of memorysystem that contains memories of facts
Types: Semantic and Episodic
Semantic:the memory of meanings,understandings, and other concept-based knowledge unrelated to specificexperiences
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Episodic memory: stores personalinformation & life experiences
Procedural memory (or implicit memory) :that stores the information that we cant
readily express verbally
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Mnemonics: Mnemonics are special memoryimproving techniques
Method of Loci :to be remembered thingsare associated with some familiar places or
location
Story telling method:
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Acronym method:Memory enhancing foods : Vitamin B, C
Over learning
Number peg method good sleep habits
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Association: Confidence in memory:
Concentration:
Exaggeration Sex:
Oddities:
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Once upon a time, there was a softwareengineer who used to develop programs onhis Pentium machine, sitting under a tree onthe banks of a river. He used to earn his
bread by selling those programs in theSunday market.
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One day, while he was working, his machinetumbled off the table and fell in the river.Encouraged by the Panchatantra story of hischildhood (the woodcutter and the axe ),
He started praying to the River Goddess.
Encouraged by the Panchatantra story of hishildh d (th d tt d th ) H
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childhood (the woodcutter and the axe ), Hestarted praying to the River Goddess.
The River Goddess wanted to test him and soappeared only after one month of rigorousprayers. The engineer told her that he had lost his
computer in the river.
As usual, the Goddess wanted to test his honesty.She showed him a match box and asked, " Is thisyour computer ?" Disappointed by the Goddess'lack of computer awareness, the engineerreplied, " No."
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She next showed him a pocket-sized calculator andasked if that was his.
Annoyed, the engineer said "No, not at all !!"
Finally, she came up with his own Pentium machine
and asked if it was his.
The engineer, left with no option, sighed and said "Yes."
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The River Goddess was happy with hishonesty. She was about to give Him all threeitems, but before she could make the offer,the engineer Asked her, "Don't you know that
you're supposed to show me some bettercomputers before bringing up my own ?"
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The River Goddess, angered at this, replied,"I know that, you stupid donkey! The firsttwo things I showed you were the Trillenniumand the Billennium, the latest computers
from IBM !". saying So, she disappeared withthe Pentium!!
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Moral :If you're not up-to-date withtechnology trends , it's better to keep yourmouth shut and let people think you're a foolthan to open your mouth and remove all
doubt.
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THANK YOU VERY MUCH
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KHEM RAJ BHATTA
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Derived from Latin word persona: literalmeaning mask
Personality is thought to represent anindividual (just similar to mask which
represents actor or character)
sum total of physical and mentalcharacteristics
Uniqueness of individual
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Relatively stable pattern of thinking,believing and behaving
Also dynamic
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Biological:Heredity: Inherited characteristics via genes
Hormones: Chemical substances secreted byglands
Neurotransmitters: Chemical substancessecreted by neurons, transmit impulses
Nervous system
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Physique: physical structures Eg:Ectomorphic, mesomorphic, endomorphic
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Natural environment: Geography,environmental condition, noise and pollution
Social Environment:
Culture:the behaviors and beliefs characteristic of aparticular social, ethnic, or age grouptransferred from generation to generation
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Child rearing practices: how children arebrought up
Role of Home: harmony, parent childrelationship, attitude of parents, type of
parenting, completeness, order of birth Sibling relationship and sibling rivalry
Schooling: type of school and itsenvironment, student teacher relationship
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Peer relationship Social role model
Socio-economic condition
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Circumstances in which people grow Temple, park, dance club
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Traits are characteristic way in which anindividual perceives, feels, believes, or acts
Trait is the habitual pattern of behavior,thought and emotions
Trait theorist believe that People are bornwith inherited traits
Trait as a continuum
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After considerable research on traittheories psychologists propose thatpersonality have five main dimensionsalso called personality factors
This theory came into existence withbeginning with the research of D. W. Fiske(1949) and later expanded upon by other
researchers including Norman (1967),Smith (1967), Goldberg (1981), andMcCrae & Costa (1987)
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Openness to experience refers to thedimension ranging from outgoing, liberal,interested in new things, and imaginative to
reserved, conservative, traditional, and
conformingConscientiousness refers to the continuum
rangingfrom organized, careful, dependableand determined to careless, and weak
willed.
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Extraversion refers to a person who prefersgroup activities, group sports, largegatherings, lots of friends and acquaintances,loud music, and social endeavor
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Agreeableness represents the extremes ofstubborn versus easy going or suspiciousversus trusting
Neuroticism refers to the dimension of
emotional stability
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Isabel Myers and Katherine Briggs(mother-daughter team) expanded onJungs work by developing an instrument
to help people identify their preferences
Non clinical and very useful in organizationalsetting
100 simple questions
KHEM RAJ BHATTA 126
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Self-Report InstrumentNonjudgmental
Preference indicator
Built for normal population
Based on Jungs theory of personality
KHEM RAJ BHATTA 127
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Extraversion Introversion
E - I Dichotomy
Where do you prefer to focusyour attention and get yourenergy?
Sensing
IntuitionS - N Dichotomy
How do you prefer to take ininformation?
Thinking Feeling
T - F Dichotomy
How do you make decisions?
Judging Perceiving
J - P Dichotomy
How do you deal with the outerworld?
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Most people whoprefer Extraversion May act quickly without
thinking
Focus on external
environments Prefer to communicate
by talking
Learn best throughdoing or discussing
Are sociable andexpressive
Enjoy working in groups
Most people whoprefer Introversion May not take action at
all
Focus on inner world
Prefer to communicatein writing
Learn best throughthorough mentalpractice and reflection
Are private andcontained
Enjoy working alone orin pairs
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Most people whoprefer Sensing Prefer facts & details/
specific information
Are oriented to present
realities Value realism
Observe and rememberspecifics through 5senses
Build carefully andthoroughly toconclusions
Trust experience
Most people whoprefer Intuition Are oriented to future
possibilities
Value imagination
See trends and patternsin specific data
Use a sixth sense
Move quickly toconclusions, follow
hunches Trust inspiration
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Most people whoprefer Thinking Are analytical
Use cause-and-effectreasoning
Solve problems withlogic
Strive for objectivestandard of truth
Described as reasonable
Search for mistake in anargument
Fair want everyonetreated equally
Most people who preferFeeling Empathetic Guided by personal
values Assess impact of
decisions on people Strive for harmony and
positive interactions Described as
compassionate Search for point of
agreement in anargument Fair want everyone
treated as an individual
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Most people whoprefer Judging Are scheduled/organized
Strive to finish oneproject before starting
another May decide things too
quickly
Try to avoid last-minutestresses; finish tasks wellbefore deadline
Try to limit surprises
See routines as effective
Most people who preferPerceiving Are spontaneous/flexible
Start many projects butmay have trouble finishing
them May decide things too
slowly
Feel energized by last-minute pressures; finishtasks at the deadline
Enjoy surprises
See routines as limiting
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ISTJManagement
AdministrationLaw enforcement
Accounting
ISFJEducation
Health careReligious settings
INFJReligion
CounselingTeaching
Arts
INTJScientific or technical
fieldsComputers
Law
ISTPSkilled trades
Technical fieldsAgriculture
Law EnforcementMilitary
ISFP
Health careBusiness
Law enforcement
INFP
CounselingWriting
Arts
INTP
Scientific ortechnical fields
ESTPMarketing
Skilled tradesBusiness
Law enforcementApplied technology
ESFPHealth careTeachingCoaching
Childcare workerSkilled trades
ENFP
CounselingTeachingReligion
Arts
ENTP
ScienceManagementTechnology
Arts
ESTJ
ManagementAdministration
Law enforcement
ESFJ
EducationHealth care
Religion
ENFJ
ReligionArts
Teaching
ENTJ
ManagementLeadership
Source: From Introduction to Type and Careers, A.L. Hammer, 1993,
Consulting Psychologists Press
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Personality of individual can be measuredusing certain tests
Testing is the technique by which unobservable behaviors are measured
Assessment: Projective Tests, Objective Testsand Situational tests, Observation methodand interview
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Also k/a Personality inventory, Selfassessment test or self report test
certain standardized questions are asked tothe person in order to determine the
personality of the individualUsually the questions asked are closed ended
in nature
MMPI, CPI, 16-PF are examples
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Minnesota Multiphasic Personality InventoryDeveloped by Hathaway and Mc. Kinley, 1943
One of the most widely used test forpersonality measurement
Original version 550, Modified 567
True, False, Can not say response
H h d i i B li f f ff i f h i l
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Hypochondriasis: Belief of suffering from physicalillness
Depression: Prolonged sadness
Hysteria: physical disorders such as blindness,paralysis as an escape from emotional problems
Psychopathic deviation: antisocial tendencyMasculinity Femininity: sex role reversal
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Paranoia: the suspiciousness, delusion ofgrandeur or persecution in the individual
Schizophrenia: unusual thoughts or behaviorsaccompanied by hallucination and delusion
Psychasthenia: obsession compulsion, guiltand indecisiveness of individual
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Hypomania: excessive excitement, flight ofideas and over activity
Social introversion: shyness, lack of interestin others and feeling of insecurity in an
individual Validity scales: Lie scale, Can not say scale
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subject is usually shown a series ofambiguous (confusing) stimuli and asked torespond to those stimuli
persons inner unconscious feeling and
thinking is reflected while confronting(facing) such ambiguous stimuli
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Murray and Morgan in 1935 Based on the concept of psychoanalysis
31 cards including 1 blank card
At most 20 cards (including 1 blank card)administrated
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Subject has to tell a story: what led theevent, what is happening at present, whatwill be the outcome, what the character arethinking and feeling : 5 minute
Not very strict about time Story as dramatic as possible
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The hero: important traits of the main characters
The need : motives and interests of main character The press: the forces and strengths of environment
acting
The theme : the actions and reactions between
heros environment and his forces The outcome : the concluding situation
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Also k/a Rorschachs inkblot testDeveloped by Herman Rorschach 1921
Consists of 10 symmetrical inkblots of which5 are black and white and remaining 5 are
multicolored
Two phases: free association and inquiryphase
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Free association phase: what he saw in each card
subject can rotate the cards in all four directions
subjects response, reactions, time taken for the
first response, total time taken and other non verbal changes recorded
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Inquiry phase: what, where and why of theresponses
Interpretation
Location: Whole Blot (W), Large Detail (D), Small usual
Detail (d), Reverse Figure ground relationship Determinants: Form, Color, movement
Content: What subject sees, of least significance
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Are the tests in which artificial situations arecreated and the individual is asked torespond to such situation
Frequently used while selecting employee for
organization
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Locus of control: Concept developed byJulian Rotter in the 1950
Locus of Control is the degree to whichpeople believe they are masters of their own
fateMay be internal or external
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External Locus of Control: Individualbelieves that his/her behavior is guided byfate, luck, or other external circumstances
Internal Locus of Control: Individual
believes that his/her behavior is guided byhis/her personal decisions and efforts
Males tend to be more internal than females
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individuals who have high scores inexternality are less satisfied with their jobs,have higher absenteeism rates, are morealienated from the work setting, and are less
involved on their jobs than are internals
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Mach is named after Niccolo Machiavelli, whowrote in the sixteenth century on how togain and use power
high in Machiavellianism is practical,
maintains emotional distance, and believesthat ends can justify means
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degree to which a person behaves to gainpower and control the behavior of others
High Machs manipulate more, win more, arepersuaded less, and persuade others more
than do low Mach
Conditions Favoring High Mach
Direct interaction
Minimal rules and regulations Emotions distract for others
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Self-esteem refers to the way we see andthink about ourselves
degree to which they like or dislike them-selves
People with high self esteem are more likelyto take risks and act proactively than thosewith low self esteem
People with high self esteem: more satisfied
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refers to an individual's ability to adjust hisor her behavior to external, situationalfactors
in self-monitoring show considerable
adaptability in adjusting their behavior toexternal situational factors
highly sensitive to external cues and canbehave differently in different situations
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capable of presenting striking contradictionsbetween their public persona and theirprivate self
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People with Type A personality show highlevels of competitiveness, time urgency, andhostility
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Are always moving, walking, and eatingrapidly;
Feel impatient with the rate at which eventstake place
Strive to think or do two or more things atonce;
cannot cope with leisure time;
Are obsessed with numbers, measuring theirsuccess in terms of how may or how much ofeverything they acquire.
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Never suffer from a sense of time urgencywith its accompanying impatience;
Feel no need to display or discuss eithertheir achievements or accomplishments
unless such exposure is demanded by thesituation;
Play for fun and relaxation rather than toexhibit their superiority at any cost;
Can relax without guilt
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tendency among human decision makers totake chance or possibility of danger, loss,injury, etc.
Individuals differ in the level of risks they
take Level of risk taking influences work behavior
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High Risk-taking Managers Make quicker decisions
Use less information to make decisions
Low Risk-taking Managers
Are slower to make decisions Require more information before making
decisions
Exist in larger organizations with stable
environments
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THE COURSE HAS BEEN FINISHED
WITH PLEASANT EXPERIENCE AS A TEACHER
THANK YOU ALL FOR YOUR KINDCOOPERATION AND PATIENCE
GOOD LUCK TO ALL OF YOU KHEM BHATTA
[email protected], 9851121830
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There are different perspectives or viewpoints inpsychology
Psychodynamic, Behavioral, Humanistic, Biological,cognitive, Socio-cultural & Evolutionary perspectives
are some example Each perspective focus on the subject matter of
psychology in somewhat different way
K ib C l R M l
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Key contributors: Carl Roger, Maslow
Assumption: Human beings are positive & haveenormous power for growth
Behavior results from inherent need for growth(Psychological growth: need to become what one isable to be)
Focus on free will, subjective experience(Psychology should focus on individuals subjectiveexperience) & uniqueness of individual
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Major contributors of this perspective areJanet Hyde and David Matsumoto
this perspective believe that behavior is theresult of socio cultural factors
explains how our personality, belief,attitude, skill and values are shaped by ourculture, ethnicity, gender, religion and otherimportant socio-cultural factors
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key contributors of this approach are George Miller,Jerome Bruner and Ulrich Neisser
focuses its attention on the role of cognition inbehavior : the mental act or process by which
knowledge is acquired cognition refers to the processing of information that
we receive through senses
It is the cognition that determines our response
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Abnormal behavior results from problem incognitive process
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focuses on the characteristic changes thatoccur in the people as they mature
views behavior as a function of development
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All of these perspectives have some positiveand some negative aspects
Psychologists these days use eclecticapproach in understanding behavior and
providing psychosocial help
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SENSATION AND PERCEPTION
BY
KHEM RAJ BHATTA
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sensation is the detection or awareness ofphysical energy in the environment due tothe stimulation of sensory receptors presentin the sense organs
Attention is process that compels us to selectsome particular stimuli out of no. of stimulipresent in environment
Perception is the meaningful interpretationof sensory information
perception is the process through which weselect, organize and interpret sensoryinformation
Sensation Perception
Simple initial mental Complex mental process
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Simple initial mental
process
Complex mental process
It consists awareness
and lacks meaning
Perception has
meaningfulness
superiority ordominance of sense
organs
dominance of brain
doesn't include past
experience
includes past experience
passive processes active process
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Preferentially responding to particularstimulus out of number of stimuli presentin the environment
Is the process that compels us to select
some particular stimuli present inenvironment
Both internal (Present in the one who
attends) and external (Present in thethings to be perceived) influence ourattention process
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Factors in the perceiver: The qualities andcharacteristics of the person who perceives
Factors in the target: The qualities andcharacteristics of the object or person to be
perceived The situation: Context in which things are
perceived
Factors in target
Novelty
Motion
Sounds
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Sounds
SizeBackground
ProximityFactors in
perceiver
Attitude
Motives
Interest
Experience
Expectations
Perception
Factors in situation
Time
Work situation
Social Setting
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focuses on what takes place in the perceptualprocess once the information from the situation isreceived
Gestalt Psychologists: Wertheimer, Koffka, Kohler
Gestalt: Meaningful whole or configuration Sum of the parts is different than its whole
We tend to organize stimuli so that there becomesmeaningful whole
www.google.com/inputtools/windows/index.html
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A) Principle of Figure ground relationship: a figure is perceived in relationship to its
background
part of stimulus appears to stand out as anobject (or figure) against a less prominentbackground (or ground)
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Principle of Closure: while confronting anincomplete pattern one ends to complete or closethe pattern or fill in sensory gaps and perceives itas a meaningful whole
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Principle of Similarity: On the basis ofsimilarity, objects or stimuli that look alikeare usually perceived as a unit
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Principle of Continuity: the objects or stimuliare perceived as a unit or group on the basisof their continuity
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Principle of Simplicity: we tend to interpretour sensory stimulation so that we canperceive complex patterns in terms ofsimpler shapes
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Principle of common fate: elements thatmove in the same direction will be perceivedas belonging together and forming a figure
Person perception is concerned with how we perceive
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Person perception is concerned with how we perceive
others behaviors (sometimes ones own)We try to findout the causes behind others behavior
i.e. why individuals behave the way they behave
Attribution: Finding cause behind behavior
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Fritz Heider proposed that we attribute thebehaviors of others either to external orinternal factors
Internally caused behaviors or internally
attributed behaviors are those that arebelieved to be under the personal control ofthe individual
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externally caused behavior is seen asresulting from outside causes; that is, theperson is seen as having been forced into thebehavior by the situation
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Famous theory of attribution Took into account the Heiders notion that
individuals all behaviors can be attributedeither internal or external factors
Kelley proposed that individuals makeattributions based on information gathered inthe form of three informational cues:consensus, distinctiveness, and consistency
Consensus is the degree to which other people in
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Consensus is the degree to which, other people in
same situation, would behave similarly to theperson being observed
Distinctiveness is the extent to which a persons
response varies from situation to situation
Consistency refers to the frequency of a particularbehavior over time
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STEREOTYPING :judging someone on the basis ofones perception of the group to which thatperson belongs
stereotypes may be based on gender, age, race,ethnicity, and even weight
Women caring job
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Drawing a general impression about anindividual on the basis of a singlecharacteristic is called the Halo effect
Physical appearance, mark sheet, dress
Plays role during interview or other judgmentsituations
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where an individual is downgraded becauseof a single negative characteristic or incident
Judgment of once mentally ill person
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our tendency to choose information thatsupports our viewpoints while ignoringinformation that threatens our viewpoints
Our experience, interests etc play role
Marketing man
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Evaluating persons characteristics that areaffected by comparisons with other peoplerecently encountered and who rank higher orlower on same characteristics is called
contrast effect Evaluation of copy and comparison of
interviewee
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This tendency to attribute one's owncharacteristics to other people is calledprojection
The one who is honest may think others
honest
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Tendency to judge according to the recentinformation received
Recent output of individual in work
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Employment InterviewDifferent interviewer view same interviewee
differently
First few minutes heavy role in judgment
Different shortcuts do play role
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Various shortcuts and other perceptualprocesses do play role in evaluating theperformance of employee
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Everyone is expecting from others in jobsetting
our expectations about the people affect ourinteraction with them in such a way that our
expectations are fulfilled: self-fulfillingprophecy or Pygmalion effect
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Assessment of individual effort is asubjective judgment subject to perceptualdistortion and bias
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Belief regarding the loyalty of employee isalso subjective
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is the process whereby a persons attitudes,opinions, beliefs or behaviors are altered orcontrolled by some form of socialcommunication
the effort by one or more individuals tochange the attitudes, perception orbehaviors of one or more others
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Important part of social influence becauseplays key role in many social interactionsincluding leadership, prejudice and helpingbehavior
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Robert Cialdini studied complianceprofessionals : sales person, advertisers, fundraisers etc
On the basis of his first hand experience with
such people Cialdini claimed that compliancerest to some degree on six basic principles
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Friendship/ Liking:Commitment/ Consistency:
Scarcity;
Reciprocity:
Social Validation:
Authority
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Ingratiation: technique of social influencebased on inducing increased liking in thetarget person before influence is attempted
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Foot in the door technique: technique forgaining compliance in which a small requestis followed by a larger one
requester begin with a small request and
then, when this is granted escalates to largerone (the one they actually desired all along)
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Low ball technique: technique of gainingcompliance in which a n offer or deal ischanged to make it less attractive to thetarget person after this person has acceptedit
Bait and Switch tactic: technique in whichitems offered for sale are unavailable or ofvery low quality which leads customers to
buy a more expensive item that is available
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Door- in the face technique: procedure forgaining compliance in which requesters beginwith a large request and then, when this isrefused, retreat to a smaller one (the onethey actually desired)
Thats- not- all technique: technique forgaining compliance in which a requesteroffers additional benefits to target person
before they have decided whether to complywith or reject specific request
Foot in the mouth technique: procedure for
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Foot in the mouth technique: procedure forgaining compliance in which the requesterestablishes some kind of relationship, nomatter how trivial, with the target person,thereby increasing this persons feeling of
obligation to comply
Playing hard to get it: effort to increase
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Playing hard to get it: effort to increasecompliance by suggesting that a person orobject is scarce and hard to obtain
Deadline technique: technique for increasing
compliance in which target persons are toldthat they have only limited time to takeadvantage of some offer or to obtain someitems
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adjusting one's behavior or thinking to match thoseof other people or a group standard
Aschs experiment on conformity
Solomon Asch asked groups of students to
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Solomon Asch asked groups of students toparticipate in a "vision test"
partner (confederates) and real subject
study was really about how the remaining
student would react to the confederates'behavior
questions about the lines such as how long is A,
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questions about the lines such as how long is A,compare the length of A to an everyday object,which line was longer than the other, which lineswere the same length
confederates always provided their answers before
the study participant answered a few questions correctly but eventually
began providing incorrect responses
Nearly 75 percent of the participants went
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Nearly 75 percent of the participants wentalong with the rest of the group at least onetime
participants conformed to the incorrectgroup answer approximately one-third of the
time participants were very accurate in their line
judgments, choosing the correct answer 98percent of the time when individually
level of conformity seen with three or more
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level of conformity seen with three or moreconfederates was far more significant
having one of the confederates give thecorrect answer while the rest of the
confederates gave the incorrect answerdramatically lowered conformity
Group size: increases in increase in group
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Group size: increases in increase in groupmember: very high decreases
Group cohesion: increases with increase
Descriptive and injunctive norms:
what most people do in given situation what ought to be done- what is approved or
disapproved behavior in given situation
is a form of social influence in which one
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is a form of social influence in which one
individual issues orders to another to behave
in specific way and other one follows it.
where an individual acts in response to a
direct order from another individual, who isusually an authority figure
Stanley Milgram researched the effect of
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Stanley Milgram researched the effect ofauthority on obedience
Respondents were told the experiment would
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Respondents were told the experiment wouldstudy the effects of punishment on learningability
offered a token cash award for participating
student or of a teacherHowever, only partner of experimenter as
student
Teachers" were asked to administer increasingly
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g ysevere electric shocks to the "learner" whenquestions were answered incorrectly
Reality: shocks delivered in the experiment were
single 45-volt shock samples given to each teacher Shock levels were labeled from 15 to 450 volts
"slight shock," "moderate shock," "strong shock,"
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g g"very strong shock," "intense shock," "extremeintensity shock "Danger: Severe Shock," "XXX."
"learner" (actor) would begin to grunt at 75complain at 120 volts agonized screams at 285 volts
at 330 volts the actor would be totally silent-that is "The experiment requires that you continue."
Sixty-five percent (65%) of the teachers were
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y p ( )willing to progress to the maximum voltagelevel
Obeyed but justified themselves :blaming
the experimenterObeyed but blamed themselves:
Rebelled
Social behavior is the behavior directed
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toward society or taking place betweenmembers of the society
Attitude is an enduring pattern of evaluative
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g p f
response toward a person, object or issue
generally positive or negative
Many times attitudes determine our behavior
Voting in election
Classical conditioning: learning through
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g g gwhich an initially neutral stimulus comesto elicit a particular response as aconsequence of being repeatedly pairedwith an unconditioned stimulus
Many studies indicate that when initially
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y yneutral words are paired with stimuli thatelicit strong negative reactions for exampleelectric shocks or loud noise the neutralwords acquire capacity to elicit favorable orunfavorable reactions representing ourattitudes to neutral words
Operant conditioning: attitudes are formed
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because of the rewards and punishmentassociated with the responses (orconsequences)
Social Learning: By observing the behaviors
and attitudes of othersGenetics: Inheritance: monozygotic and
dizygotic twins: heredity is important factorin formation of attitudes
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Traditional approach and cognitive approach
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Traditional approach: Who say what towhom; researches primarily focused oncommunication
Focused on characteristics of communicator,communication and audience: Also k/a Yaleapproach
Expertise
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Messages that do not seem to be designed tochange attitude
Attractive communicators
When they are distracted by someextraneous events than when they are payingfull attention to what is being said
Low self esteem of audience
If audience have attitude contrary to that of
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persuader: Two sided approach moreeffective
Rapid speakers: especially when speakers
present views different from those hold bytheir audience: when similar view: less
Messages that arouse strong emotions
etc
approach that attempts to understand
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persuasion by identifying the cognitiveprocesses that play role in persuasion
Elaboration likelihood model and cognitive
dissonance theory
suggests that persuasion can occur in either
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of two distinct ways, differing in the amountof cognitive effort or elaboration theyrequire
Central and peripheral route central route in which attitude change
results from systematic processing ofinformation presented in persuasive
message: message interesting to audience
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Leo Festinger
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we experience the motivation to reducecognitive dissonance (An unpleasant statethat results when we notice inconsistency
between two or more of our attitudes orbetween our attitudes and behaviors)
attempt to reduce inconsistency becomes asource of persuasion
individual tries one of the following
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mechanisms
Changing one of the attitude (or behavior)so that these are more consistent with eachother
Acquiring new information that supportsattitudes or behaviors
Trivialization: concluding that the attitudes
or behaviors are not important
we choose one that requires the least effort
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We use trivialization only when changingattitude is relatively difficult
preconceived belief, opinion, or judgmentd f l i l
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toward a group of people or a single personbecause of race, social class, sexualorientation etc
negative attitude toward members ofspecific social group
Prejudice is negative attitude which iscombination of affect (feeling) behaviour
tendency (inclination to act) and cognition(beliefs)
beliefs about attributes that are thought tob h i i f b f i l
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be characteristic of members of particulargroups
Stereotypes are sometimes overgeneralized, inaccurate, and resistant to newinformation
May be positive or negative
unfair treatment of members of a particular
group based on their membership in thatgroup
Prejudice is attitude: stereotype is belief
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Discrimination is behavior: prejudice inaction
Stereotypes and prejudices are hard to
change with facts
Direct inter group conflict: Direct inter group
fli t i i d t th titi i
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conflict arising due to the competition is oneimportant source of prejudice : Robberscave experiment
Social categorization and ethnocentrism: we
tend to divide the social world into twodistinct category- us Vs them and sharplycontrasting feeling and beliefs are usuallyattached
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Social learning or observational learning:
Di t i i l i
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Direct or vicarious learning Frustration and aggression: Scapegoat theory
(displaced aggression): A person who is notgetting job may see a minority group
individual as source of failure to get job:relatively powerless group
Minorities blamed and aggressed againstespecially in times of economic depression
Reward and punishment (operant conditioning)
Cl i l diti i
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Classical conditioning Social conformity: Individuals show more
prejudice when they move into areas where moreprejudicial attitudes are the norm
Personality traits: Authoritarian personality, rigid inbeliefs, Intolerant of weakness, Suspicious
Inquiry into authoritarian peoples early lives
l d th t hild th ft f d
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revealed that, as children, they often facedharsh discipline. That supposedly led them torepress their hostilities and impulses and toproject them onto out groups
Defense mechanism : Projection
Media can help maintain prejudice: Notfocusing on minorities
illusory correlations: overestimating rates of
negati e beha ior in minorit gro ps
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negative behavior in minority groupsOut group homogeneity and in group
differentiation
Direct inter group contact:
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A common goal
M l i d d
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Mutual interdependence
Equal status of group members
Having informal interpersonal contact
Having multiple contacts with severalmembers of the out group
When social norms are in place that promoteequality
Re categorization: Breaking boundarybetween us and them group
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between us and them group
Learning Not to hate: Use of social learning
Applying cognitive dissonance for attitude
change Encouraging co-operation rather than
competition
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Morgan and others (1986) defined thinking as the form ofinformation processing that goes on during the period between a
stimulus event and the response to it
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stimulus event and the response to it mental manipulation of information
Information processing process
Mental images: representation that mirrors
or resembles the thing it represents: all
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or resembles the thing it represents: allsensory modality
Concept: mental categories for objects,events, experience or idea that are similar toone another in one or more respect
distinguish between members and
nonmembers of the conceptual category
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nonmembers of the conceptual category
Symbols: represent and stand as substitutefor actual object, experiences andactivities:anything that stands for or refersto something other than itself
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Preparation
Incubation
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Incubation
Illumination
Evaluation
Verification
formulated by Lubart (1994) suggests that in
order for creativity to occur multiple (six)
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order for creativity to occur, multiple (six)components must converge
Intellectual abilities
Knowledge
Certain style of thinking: novel way and thinkingglobally as well as locally
Personality characteristics: Risk taking, cantolerate ambiguity
Intrinsically motivated and task oriented
Environment supportive of creative ideas
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Environment supportive of creative ideas
A problem is any conflict or difference
between one situation and another situation
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between one situation and another situationwe wish to produce our goal
Problem-solving refers to the mental processthat people go through to discover, analyzeand solve problems
Eg: Solving numerical problems
Problem identification and understanding:
What problem is issues and obstacles attached
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What problem is, issues and obstacles attached,possible cause: makes complete picture aboutproblem
Individuals mental capacity, experience,
knowledge etc play role Clear understanding is 50 % solution
Generation of potential solutions:
Possible solutions listed out
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Possible solutions listed out
Capacity depends on individual factors,experience and understanding of problem
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Trying out of solution and evaluation of
result:
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result: Each solutions actually tried out
Evaluated in terms of outcomes they produce
The solution that seems to be most effective inbecomes workable solution
Trial and error: in which a number of possible
solutions are tried out until one succeeds
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solutions are tried out until one succeeds
Algorithms: is a set of rules which if followedcorrectly, will guarantee a solution to theproblem
Heuristic: are sets of rule, usually based on
our past experience with problems that are
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our past experience with problems, that arelikely to lead a solution but do not guaranteea solution
Analogy: application of techniques thatworked in similar situation in past
tendency people have to only use solutions
that have worked in the past rather than
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that have worked in the past rather thanlooking for alternative ideas
State of mental preparedness
often work as a heuristic, making it a usefulproblem-solving tool
also lead to inflexibility, making it moredifficult to find effective solutions
the tendency of individual to think of using
objects as they have been used in the past
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objects as they have been used in the past
Inability to think of other uses of particularobject
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Decisions are the choices made from among
two or more alternatives
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two or more alternatives
Decision making is the process of makinga choice between a number of options
process of weighing the advantages anddisadvantages of each alternative to reach adecision
Rational decision making implies making
consistent, value maximizing choices within
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consistent, value maximizing choices withinspecified constraints
process which derives maximum utility andprobability within certain limitations
Define the problem
What the problem is
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p
Issues attached with it
Identify the decision criteria:
Making criteria for decision making
decision makers interests, values, and personal
preferences etc. may play role
Should be scientific and unbiased
Allocate weights to the criteria
Allocating weight to various alternatives
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g g
Prioritizing
Develop the alternatives:
Listing all alternatives
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g
Evaluate the alternative
Alternatives evaluated in terms of the decisioncriteria
Select the best alternative
Choosing best among the given alternatives
Over- confidence bias: over estimating ones
ability: low esteem and low intelligence:
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y gHigh in over confidence
Anchoring bias: tendency to fixate on initialinformation, from which one then fails toadequately adjust for subsequentinformation: Also k/a foculism
Representative bias: that the more closely an
event or object resembles typical example of
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j yp psome concept or category, the more likely itis to belong to that concept or category
Confirmation bias: a tendency to search for
or interpret information in a way that
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p yconfirms one's preconceptions, leading tostatistical errors
Availability bias: Is the tendency for peopleto base their judgments on information thatis readily available
Hindsight bias: Is the tendency to believe
falsely, after an outcome of an event is
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y,actually known, that one would haveaccurately predicted that outcome
Escalation of commitment: Is an increasedcommitment to previous decision making inspite of negative information
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