Bba Tu Cumulative

7/27/2019 Bba Tu Cumulative

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Has been defined differently

Movere: to move or to agitate

Is intense feeling directed at someone or

somethingMotivated state marked by physiological

changes, expressive behavior and mentalexperience

Colors our life


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emotion is usually transitory

emotional experience has a valence

Emotional experience alters thought

processes elicits an action tendency

usually happens without willful intent

Has three components


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strong feeling

Has contextual stimuli


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Affect is general term that covers a broadrange of feelings that people experience

Includes both mood and emotion

Mood: feeling less intense than emotionUsually lacks contextual stimuli

Emotional state extended

Emotion: Intense state

Has contextual stimuli


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Short period

Emotional labor: if employees expressorganizationally desired emotions during

interpersonal transactions, k/a emotionallabor

Effort, planning and control needed toexpress organizationally desired emotion

during interpersonal transaction


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May be harmful in some instances foremployee

Felt vs displayed emotions: Felt emotions are

an individuals actual emotion displayed emotion are those that are

required and considered appropriate in agiven situation

Felt are spontaneous


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Boundaries that shape individuals emotions

Primarily: Organizational and cultural

Every organization has its own boundaries regarding

appropriateness of emotion and emotionalexpression

Eg.: Sports, Bar etc

Such boundaries Shape emotion of employee


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Emotional expression may also be shaped bycultural influences

cultural norms define appropriateness of emotion

Muslim cultures, smiling is frequently taken as asign of sexual attraction

Culture influence is thus one crucial factor inshaping displayed emotions and felt emotions to

some extent


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Emotion has been classified in different ways

Some classified into primary and secondary

Primary emotion: are the emotions, which

are biologically based and are considered tobe universal.

According to Plutchik (1980) fear, surprise,sadness, disgust (aversion or hatred), anger,

anticipation, joy (delight) and acceptance


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Secondary emotions: are the emotions thatare either combination of primary emotionsor that are specific to certain cultures


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Awe: Terror, fright

Remorse: regret, sorry

contempt : disapprove, dislike


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Some psychologists have divided emotioninto positive and negative

create pleasantness are called positive

emotions E.g. : Love, happiness

Positive emotions are good for health


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Negative emotions are the emotions thatcreate state of displeasure in individual

Eg; Anger, Sadness etc

Study about these: you will get handouts


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Goleman

ability, capacity, skill, a self-perceivedability, to identify, assesses, and manages

the emotions of one's self, of others, and ofgroups

Important determiner of success

Measured in terms of EQ (Emotional

intelligence quotient)


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Self awareness: being aware of one's ownfeelings, moods, needs and/or emotions

Self management: ability to manage one's

own emotions and impulses Self motivation: persons internal urge to

maintain and manage emotional behaviour ina stable manner, even when difficult

situations and hurdles arise


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Empathy : ability to sense how others arefeeling

Social skills: ability to handle emotions of

others


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Ability and selection

Decision making

Interpersonal conflict

Deviant workplace behaviorCreativity


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THANK YOU VERY MUCH


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individuals ability to learn

as adjustment capacity of the individual todifferent situations and problems of life

the global capacity of the individual to actpurposefully, to think rationally and to dealwith the situation effectively


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individuals abilities to understand complex

ideas, to adapt effectively to theenvironment, to learn from experience, toengage in various forms of reasoning, and toovercome obstacles by careful thought


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One of the important respects in whichindividuals differ

One of the predictors of success

Measured in terms of Intelligence quotient is an innate (by birth) ability which grows

and is influenced by environment


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Also k/a g factor theory or spearmans theory

According to spearman intelligence consistedof 2 kinds of factors (types of intelligence): a

single general factor, g, and numerousspecific factors (s1, s2, s3, etc.)

g factor was the most important; s factorswere very specific to particular tests

These two factors are highly correlated toeach other


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also called the general ability/intelligence

each individual has one g, present at birthand varies little

common to all mental activities i.e. involvedin all intellectual abilities

e.g. Mechanical ability, musical ability,mathematical ability show a level of

correlation because certain amount of 'g' isrequired in them


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also called specific ability/intelligence

more than one and learned afterward

related to particular intellectual tasks only

mathematical skill requires some g and alsospecific mathematical abilities, such asability to multiply and addition. Similarly,mechanical ability requires some g ability

and mechanical specific ability


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The general quality of a person'sperformance on any area will be high or lowdepending upon the, amount of g possessed

A person poor in g will perform poorly in alltasks and a person high in `g' will do high inall tasks that mainly depend upon g


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Also k/a Multifactor theory or theory ofprimary mental abilities

Developed by L.L. Thurstone, 1938

7 independent sets of mental abilities Verbal comprehension, word fluency,

number, space relationship, memory,perceptual speed, reasoning


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Verbal comprehension: understand themeaning of words

measured by tasks involving vocabulary,

synonyms, antonyms, and readingcomprehension


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Word fluency: ability to quickly generate andmanipulate a large number of words withspecific characteristics

Can be measured by problems like anagram,production of word rapidly


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Number: Ability to quickly and accuratelycarry out mathematical operations

Can be tested by simple arithmetic test


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Spatial visualization: The ability to mentallymanipulate and visualize geometric relations

measured by task requiring manipulation of

geometrical design like block design


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Memory: ability to remember words, letters,numbers and images

recall of sentences, paired words


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Perceptual speed:quickness in perceivingvisual details, similarities etc.

Problems involving finding out missing things,

differentiating between two pictured objects


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Reasoning: ability to derive general ideas andrules from specific information

Analogies and problems solving tasks (like

series)


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Developed in 1983 by Howard Gardner

proposes eight different intelligences(relatively independent to each other) to

account for a broader range of humanpotential in children and adults

Logical-mathematical, Musical, bodilykinesthetic, Linguistic, Spatial,

interpersonal, intrapersonal and naturalist


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Multiple Intelligences several independentmental abilities that allow a person to solveproblems, create products that are valuedwithin ones culture.

Intelligence defined within the context ofculture

In Gardners view, each of the multipleintelligences is linked to an independent

system in brain


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Logical-mathematical intelligence: capacity toanalyze problems logically, carry out mathematicaloperations, and investigate issues scientifically

scientists, mathematicians, engineers, doctors

and economists

Musical intelligence involves skill in theperformance, composition, and appreciation ofmusical patterns

instrumentalists, singers, disc-jockeys, and

composers


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Linguistic Intelligence-- involves sensitivity to

spoken and written language, the ability to learnlanguages

high in writers, lawyers, philosophers, journalists,politicians and teachers

Bodily-kinesthetic intelligence involves thepotential of using one's whole body or parts of thebody to solve problems

athletes, dancers, actors, surgeons, builders and

soldiers


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Spatial intelligence involves the potential torecognize and use the patterns of wide space andmore confined areas

artists, photographers, pilots, painters and

architects

Interpersonal intelligence is concerned with thecapacity to understand the intentions, motivationsand desires of other people

politicians, managers, teachers, and social workers


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Intrapersonal intelligence involves the capacity to

understand oneself, to appreciate one's feelings,fears and motivations

philosophers, psychologists,, writers and scientists

Naturalist intelligence involves the ability to

understand and work effectively in the naturalworld

wild Life Photographer , gardeners and farmers


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proposed by Sternberg in 1984

Three types of intelligence: componential,experiential and contextual

Componential or analytical intelligencerefers to the information processingstrategies that individual uses when he thinks


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mental processes used in learning how tosolve problems

Experiential or creative emphasizes insightand the ability to formulate new ideas

ability to deal with novel situations bydrawing on existing skills and knowledge


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Contextual or practical intelligence: involvesthe ability to grasp, understand and dealwith everyday tasks

ability to adapt to the environment


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Crystallized Intelligence learning from pastexperiences and learning.

Situations that require crystallized intelligence include

reading comprehension and vocabulary exams.

This type of intelligence is based upon facts and rooted inexperiences.

This type of intelligence becomes stronger as we age and

accumulate new knowledge and understanding.


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Fluid Intelligence - the ability to think and reasonabstractly and solve problems. This ability is considered independent of learning,

experience, and education. Examples: solving puzzles and coming up with problem

solving strategies.

Both types of intelligence increase throughout childhoodand adolescence.

Fluid intelligence peaks in adolescence and begins todecline progressively beginning around age 30 or 40.


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Is one of the extremes of intelligence

significantly sub average general intellectualfunctioning accompanied by significantlimitation in adaptive function in certain skillareas such as self care, work, health andsafety

Symptoms should start before18 and IQ

should be below 70


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About 1 percent of general population sufferfrom mental retardation (Sadock and Sadock,2000)


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Mild mental retardation

Moderate mental retardation

Severe mental retardation

Profound mental retardation


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IQ 50-55 to approximately 70

Educable

Mental age 8-11 year

Social adjustment equivalent to that ofadolescents but lack creativeness and normalimaginativeness

Learn very slowly and at most can achieve

high school education


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Do not show sign of brain pathologyordinarily

Early diagnosis, parental assistance can makethese people independent citizens

Majority of MR are mildly retarded


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IQ 35-40 to 50-55

Trainable

Mental age 4-7 year: When adult

Bodily deformities and poor motor co-ordination

Some hostile and aggressive

Some exceptionally good in particular field


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Can do normal routined works like cooking

Physically they look clumsy

Early diagnosis, parental assistance,

adequate training: partial independence inself care, acceptable behavior and economicsustenance in family


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IQ 20-25 to 35-40

Dependent retarded

Motor and speech development severely retarded

and sensory defect (eg. deafness) and handicapcommon

With early parental assistance and special trainingcan develop limited levels of personal hygiene and

self help skills


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Many can to some extent profit from trainingand can perform simple occupational tasksunder supervision


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IQ below 20-25

Life support retarded

Speech development severely retarded

Brain pathology and retarded growth,convulsion, sensory defect are common

Low immune power and short life expectancy

Have to live in custodial care all their life


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GENETIC FACTORS

Fragile X syndrome: breaking off of the end portionof the arm of X sex chromosome

Downs syndrome: caused by presence of an extrachromosome in 21st pair

Phenylketonuria: inherited lack of liver enzyme tobreakdown the amino acid Phenylanaline


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OTHER FACTORS Infection : syphilis or German measles her

child may suffer from brain damage andmental retardation

Toxic agents: toxic agents like carbonmonoxide, lead may cause brain damageduring or after birth and may lead thechild to Mental retardation


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Premature birth, low birth weight and headtrauma

High exposure to Ionizing radiation like X-ray

severe malnutrition of mother or child Severe emotional deprivation of child


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THANK YOU VERY MUCH


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Confidence : once all villagers decided to pray forrain. In the day of praying all prayers gathered & only

one boy came with umbrella, that is the confidence

Trust :Trust should be like feeling of a one year oldbaby. when you throw him in air, he laughs, Because he

knows you will catch him.

Hope : Every night you go to bed, have no assurance toget up alive in the next morning but still you have plansand hopes for the coming day.

Keep confidence , Trust in God & never lose Hopes .

GOOD MORNING TO ALL OF YOU


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According to Sdorow (1995) "memory is the process by whichinformation is acquired, stored in brain & later retrieved".

Memory is an organism's ability to store, retain, and recallinformation.


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Encoding: The process through which information isconverted into a form that can be entered intomemory. Effortful/Automatic

Storage: Retaining in the memory system for longerduration.

Retrieval: process of bringing stored information

into consciousness.


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Sensory memory (or immediate memory):

Short term memory:

Long term memory:


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Sensory memory: very brief period of time 2-5 seconds

Storage capacity high

storage period ranges from fraction of second to4 seconds

Information loss mainly due to decay ofinformation.

Different sensory organ: Different register


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stores limited amount of information forlimited period of time

can store information from 20 to 30

secondsStorage capacity of this memory is 7 2

chunks (or unit) of information at time

Loss of information mainly due to decay

of information and displacement of olderinformation by new information.


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Long term memory is the permanentstorehouse (Relatively permanent)

can store practically unlimited amount ofinformation

forgetting from long term :Inhibition ofinformation, Trace decay, Repression,memory dysfunctions (Like amnesia,

dementia, fugue)


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Attention

and

Recognition

Sensory

MemorySTM

LTMSensory

input

Rehearsal

DOSTI NAHI HONI CHAHIYA RAYMOND JAISI ... SINCE


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DOSTI NAHI HONI CHAHIYA RAYMOND JAISI ... SINCE1925 ,

PEPSI JAISI BHI NAHIN , KI YE DIL MAANGE MORE...

YE HONI CHAHIYA L.I.C. JAISI ,JINDAGI KE SAATH BHI , JINDAGI KE BAAD BHI....

BE GOOD FRIENDS


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apparent loss of information alreadyencoded and stored in long term memory

information Not encoded in LTM not eligiblefor forgetting


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Inhibition (or interference)

Repression

Trace decay

Retrieval problem


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tendency of new memories to impair the retrievalof older memories and vice versa

Types:

1. Proactive Interference: older memories interferewith the retrieval of newer information

Learns task A Learns task BRetention intervalMeasure of Recallof B


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2.Retroactive Interference:

new memories interfere with the retrieval of oldermemories

Learns task A Learns task B Retention interval Measure of Recall A


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Retrieval Problem: Without appropriateretrieval cues we can't find to be retrievedinformation

Associating is better than parroting


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Repression (Motivated forgetting) :tendency tohave difficulty retrieving anxiety arousing orthreatening information

Trace decay: due to the decay of memory traces

With the passage of time through disuse, thesememory traces of learning impressions get weakerand weaker and finally fade away


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Pathological Forgetting Forgetting that can not be described by

normal forgetfulness

Amnesia: partial or complete loss ofmemory

Due to psychological or biological reason

Anterograde and Retrograde


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Apart from being amnesic, patient generallywanders away from his or her familiar

surrounding

Sudden onset

Forgets everything of his previoussorrounding

After sometime forgets everything of new

situation (Fugue state)


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Dementia: Characteristic of old age Impairment or loss of memory, especially

evident in the learning of new information,and of thinking, language, judgment and

other cognitive abilities

Dementia of Alzheimers type


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Working memory module: Active memorysystem

All mental activities are carried out in thismemory

Baddeley in 1992 Model of Working memory


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working memory carries out its action byhelp of three major parts i.e. phonologicalloop, visuospatial sketch pad and centralexecutive

Phonological loop processes informationrelating to the sound of words.


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Visuospatial sketch pad processes visual andspatial information (i.e. information aboutthe visual appearance of objects, such ascolor and shape and where they are located

in space)Central executive supervises and coordinates

the other two components.


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Declarative memory (or explicit memory):Declarative memory is the type of memorysystem that contains memories of facts

Types: Semantic and Episodic

Semantic:the memory of meanings,understandings, and other concept-based knowledge unrelated to specificexperiences


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Episodic memory: stores personalinformation & life experiences

Procedural memory (or implicit memory) :that stores the information that we cant

readily express verbally


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Mnemonics: Mnemonics are special memoryimproving techniques

Method of Loci :to be remembered thingsare associated with some familiar places or

location

Story telling method:


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Acronym method:Memory enhancing foods : Vitamin B, C

Over learning

Number peg method good sleep habits


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Association: Confidence in memory:

Concentration:

Exaggeration Sex:

Oddities:


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Once upon a time, there was a softwareengineer who used to develop programs onhis Pentium machine, sitting under a tree onthe banks of a river. He used to earn his

bread by selling those programs in theSunday market.


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One day, while he was working, his machinetumbled off the table and fell in the river.Encouraged by the Panchatantra story of hischildhood (the woodcutter and the axe ),

He started praying to the River Goddess.

Encouraged by the Panchatantra story of hishildh d (th d tt d th ) H


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childhood (the woodcutter and the axe ), Hestarted praying to the River Goddess.

The River Goddess wanted to test him and soappeared only after one month of rigorousprayers. The engineer told her that he had lost his

computer in the river.

As usual, the Goddess wanted to test his honesty.She showed him a match box and asked, " Is thisyour computer ?" Disappointed by the Goddess'lack of computer awareness, the engineerreplied, " No."


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She next showed him a pocket-sized calculator andasked if that was his.

Annoyed, the engineer said "No, not at all !!"

Finally, she came up with his own Pentium machine

and asked if it was his.

The engineer, left with no option, sighed and said "Yes."


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The River Goddess was happy with hishonesty. She was about to give Him all threeitems, but before she could make the offer,the engineer Asked her, "Don't you know that

you're supposed to show me some bettercomputers before bringing up my own ?"


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The River Goddess, angered at this, replied,"I know that, you stupid donkey! The firsttwo things I showed you were the Trillenniumand the Billennium, the latest computers

from IBM !". saying So, she disappeared withthe Pentium!!


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Moral :If you're not up-to-date withtechnology trends , it's better to keep yourmouth shut and let people think you're a foolthan to open your mouth and remove all

doubt.


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THANK YOU VERY MUCH


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KHEM RAJ BHATTA


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Derived from Latin word persona: literalmeaning mask

Personality is thought to represent anindividual (just similar to mask which

represents actor or character)

sum total of physical and mentalcharacteristics

Uniqueness of individual


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Relatively stable pattern of thinking,believing and behaving

Also dynamic


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Biological:Heredity: Inherited characteristics via genes

Hormones: Chemical substances secreted byglands

Neurotransmitters: Chemical substancessecreted by neurons, transmit impulses

Nervous system


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Physique: physical structures Eg:Ectomorphic, mesomorphic, endomorphic


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Natural environment: Geography,environmental condition, noise and pollution

Social Environment:

Culture:the behaviors and beliefs characteristic of aparticular social, ethnic, or age grouptransferred from generation to generation


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Child rearing practices: how children arebrought up

Role of Home: harmony, parent childrelationship, attitude of parents, type of

parenting, completeness, order of birth Sibling relationship and sibling rivalry

Schooling: type of school and itsenvironment, student teacher relationship


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Peer relationship Social role model

Socio-economic condition


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Circumstances in which people grow Temple, park, dance club


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Traits are characteristic way in which anindividual perceives, feels, believes, or acts

Trait is the habitual pattern of behavior,thought and emotions

Trait theorist believe that People are bornwith inherited traits

Trait as a continuum


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After considerable research on traittheories psychologists propose thatpersonality have five main dimensionsalso called personality factors

This theory came into existence withbeginning with the research of D. W. Fiske(1949) and later expanded upon by other

researchers including Norman (1967),Smith (1967), Goldberg (1981), andMcCrae & Costa (1987)


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Openness to experience refers to thedimension ranging from outgoing, liberal,interested in new things, and imaginative to

reserved, conservative, traditional, and

conformingConscientiousness refers to the continuum

rangingfrom organized, careful, dependableand determined to careless, and weak

willed.


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Extraversion refers to a person who prefersgroup activities, group sports, largegatherings, lots of friends and acquaintances,loud music, and social endeavor


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Agreeableness represents the extremes ofstubborn versus easy going or suspiciousversus trusting

Neuroticism refers to the dimension of

emotional stability


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Isabel Myers and Katherine Briggs(mother-daughter team) expanded onJungs work by developing an instrument

to help people identify their preferences

Non clinical and very useful in organizationalsetting

100 simple questions

KHEM RAJ BHATTA 126


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Self-Report InstrumentNonjudgmental

Preference indicator

Built for normal population

Based on Jungs theory of personality

KHEM RAJ BHATTA 127


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Extraversion Introversion

E - I Dichotomy

Where do you prefer to focusyour attention and get yourenergy?

Sensing

IntuitionS - N Dichotomy

How do you prefer to take ininformation?

Thinking Feeling

T - F Dichotomy

How do you make decisions?

Judging Perceiving

J - P Dichotomy

How do you deal with the outerworld?


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Most people whoprefer Extraversion May act quickly without

thinking

Focus on external

environments Prefer to communicate

by talking

Learn best throughdoing or discussing

Are sociable andexpressive

Enjoy working in groups

Most people whoprefer Introversion May not take action at

all

Focus on inner world

Prefer to communicatein writing

Learn best throughthorough mentalpractice and reflection

Are private andcontained

Enjoy working alone orin pairs


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Most people whoprefer Sensing Prefer facts & details/

specific information

Are oriented to present

realities Value realism

Observe and rememberspecifics through 5senses

Build carefully andthoroughly toconclusions

Trust experience

Most people whoprefer Intuition Are oriented to future

possibilities

Value imagination

See trends and patternsin specific data

Use a sixth sense

Move quickly toconclusions, follow

hunches Trust inspiration


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Most people whoprefer Thinking Are analytical

Use cause-and-effectreasoning

Solve problems withlogic

Strive for objectivestandard of truth

Described as reasonable

Search for mistake in anargument

Fair want everyonetreated equally

Most people who preferFeeling Empathetic Guided by personal

values Assess impact of

decisions on people Strive for harmony and

positive interactions Described as

compassionate Search for point of

agreement in anargument Fair want everyone

treated as an individual


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Most people whoprefer Judging Are scheduled/organized

Strive to finish oneproject before starting

another May decide things too

quickly

Try to avoid last-minutestresses; finish tasks wellbefore deadline

Try to limit surprises

See routines as effective

Most people who preferPerceiving Are spontaneous/flexible

Start many projects butmay have trouble finishing

them May decide things too

slowly

Feel energized by last-minute pressures; finishtasks at the deadline

Enjoy surprises

See routines as limiting


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ISTJManagement

AdministrationLaw enforcement

Accounting

ISFJEducation

Health careReligious settings

INFJReligion

CounselingTeaching

Arts

INTJScientific or technical

fieldsComputers

Law

ISTPSkilled trades

Technical fieldsAgriculture

Law EnforcementMilitary

ISFP

Health careBusiness

Law enforcement

INFP

CounselingWriting

Arts

INTP

Scientific ortechnical fields

ESTPMarketing

Skilled tradesBusiness

Law enforcementApplied technology

ESFPHealth careTeachingCoaching

Childcare workerSkilled trades

ENFP

CounselingTeachingReligion

Arts

ENTP

ScienceManagementTechnology

Arts

ESTJ

ManagementAdministration

Law enforcement

ESFJ

EducationHealth care

Religion

ENFJ

ReligionArts

Teaching

ENTJ

ManagementLeadership

Source: From Introduction to Type and Careers, A.L. Hammer, 1993,

Consulting Psychologists Press


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Personality of individual can be measuredusing certain tests

Testing is the technique by which unobservable behaviors are measured

Assessment: Projective Tests, Objective Testsand Situational tests, Observation methodand interview


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Also k/a Personality inventory, Selfassessment test or self report test

certain standardized questions are asked tothe person in order to determine the

personality of the individualUsually the questions asked are closed ended

in nature

MMPI, CPI, 16-PF are examples


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Minnesota Multiphasic Personality InventoryDeveloped by Hathaway and Mc. Kinley, 1943

One of the most widely used test forpersonality measurement

Original version 550, Modified 567

True, False, Can not say response

H h d i i B li f f ff i f h i l


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Hypochondriasis: Belief of suffering from physicalillness

Depression: Prolonged sadness

Hysteria: physical disorders such as blindness,paralysis as an escape from emotional problems

Psychopathic deviation: antisocial tendencyMasculinity Femininity: sex role reversal


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Paranoia: the suspiciousness, delusion ofgrandeur or persecution in the individual

Schizophrenia: unusual thoughts or behaviorsaccompanied by hallucination and delusion

Psychasthenia: obsession compulsion, guiltand indecisiveness of individual


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Hypomania: excessive excitement, flight ofideas and over activity

Social introversion: shyness, lack of interestin others and feeling of insecurity in an

individual Validity scales: Lie scale, Can not say scale


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subject is usually shown a series ofambiguous (confusing) stimuli and asked torespond to those stimuli

persons inner unconscious feeling and

thinking is reflected while confronting(facing) such ambiguous stimuli


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Murray and Morgan in 1935 Based on the concept of psychoanalysis

31 cards including 1 blank card

At most 20 cards (including 1 blank card)administrated


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Subject has to tell a story: what led theevent, what is happening at present, whatwill be the outcome, what the character arethinking and feeling : 5 minute

Not very strict about time Story as dramatic as possible


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The hero: important traits of the main characters

The need : motives and interests of main character The press: the forces and strengths of environment

acting

The theme : the actions and reactions between

heros environment and his forces The outcome : the concluding situation


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Also k/a Rorschachs inkblot testDeveloped by Herman Rorschach 1921

Consists of 10 symmetrical inkblots of which5 are black and white and remaining 5 are

multicolored

Two phases: free association and inquiryphase


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Free association phase: what he saw in each card

subject can rotate the cards in all four directions

subjects response, reactions, time taken for the

first response, total time taken and other non verbal changes recorded


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Inquiry phase: what, where and why of theresponses

Interpretation

Location: Whole Blot (W), Large Detail (D), Small usual

Detail (d), Reverse Figure ground relationship Determinants: Form, Color, movement

Content: What subject sees, of least significance


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Are the tests in which artificial situations arecreated and the individual is asked torespond to such situation

Frequently used while selecting employee for

organization


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Locus of control: Concept developed byJulian Rotter in the 1950

Locus of Control is the degree to whichpeople believe they are masters of their own

fateMay be internal or external


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External Locus of Control: Individualbelieves that his/her behavior is guided byfate, luck, or other external circumstances

Internal Locus of Control: Individual

believes that his/her behavior is guided byhis/her personal decisions and efforts

Males tend to be more internal than females


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individuals who have high scores inexternality are less satisfied with their jobs,have higher absenteeism rates, are morealienated from the work setting, and are less

involved on their jobs than are internals


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Mach is named after Niccolo Machiavelli, whowrote in the sixteenth century on how togain and use power

high in Machiavellianism is practical,

maintains emotional distance, and believesthat ends can justify means


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degree to which a person behaves to gainpower and control the behavior of others

High Machs manipulate more, win more, arepersuaded less, and persuade others more

than do low Mach

Conditions Favoring High Mach

Direct interaction

Minimal rules and regulations Emotions distract for others


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Self-esteem refers to the way we see andthink about ourselves

degree to which they like or dislike them-selves

People with high self esteem are more likelyto take risks and act proactively than thosewith low self esteem

People with high self esteem: more satisfied


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refers to an individual's ability to adjust hisor her behavior to external, situationalfactors

in self-monitoring show considerable

adaptability in adjusting their behavior toexternal situational factors

highly sensitive to external cues and canbehave differently in different situations


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capable of presenting striking contradictionsbetween their public persona and theirprivate self


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People with Type A personality show highlevels of competitiveness, time urgency, andhostility


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Are always moving, walking, and eatingrapidly;

Feel impatient with the rate at which eventstake place

Strive to think or do two or more things atonce;

cannot cope with leisure time;

Are obsessed with numbers, measuring theirsuccess in terms of how may or how much ofeverything they acquire.


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Never suffer from a sense of time urgencywith its accompanying impatience;

Feel no need to display or discuss eithertheir achievements or accomplishments

unless such exposure is demanded by thesituation;

Play for fun and relaxation rather than toexhibit their superiority at any cost;

Can relax without guilt


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tendency among human decision makers totake chance or possibility of danger, loss,injury, etc.

Individuals differ in the level of risks they

take Level of risk taking influences work behavior


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High Risk-taking Managers Make quicker decisions

Use less information to make decisions

Low Risk-taking Managers

Are slower to make decisions Require more information before making

decisions

Exist in larger organizations with stable

environments


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THE COURSE HAS BEEN FINISHED

WITH PLEASANT EXPERIENCE AS A TEACHER

THANK YOU ALL FOR YOUR KINDCOOPERATION AND PATIENCE

GOOD LUCK TO ALL OF YOU KHEM BHATTA

[email protected], 9851121830


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There are different perspectives or viewpoints inpsychology

Psychodynamic, Behavioral, Humanistic, Biological,cognitive, Socio-cultural & Evolutionary perspectives

are some example Each perspective focus on the subject matter of

psychology in somewhat different way

K ib C l R M l


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Key contributors: Carl Roger, Maslow

Assumption: Human beings are positive & haveenormous power for growth

Behavior results from inherent need for growth(Psychological growth: need to become what one isable to be)

Focus on free will, subjective experience(Psychology should focus on individuals subjectiveexperience) & uniqueness of individual


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Major contributors of this perspective areJanet Hyde and David Matsumoto

this perspective believe that behavior is theresult of socio cultural factors

explains how our personality, belief,attitude, skill and values are shaped by ourculture, ethnicity, gender, religion and otherimportant socio-cultural factors


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key contributors of this approach are George Miller,Jerome Bruner and Ulrich Neisser

focuses its attention on the role of cognition inbehavior : the mental act or process by which

knowledge is acquired cognition refers to the processing of information that

we receive through senses

It is the cognition that determines our response


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Abnormal behavior results from problem incognitive process


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focuses on the characteristic changes thatoccur in the people as they mature

views behavior as a function of development


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All of these perspectives have some positiveand some negative aspects

Psychologists these days use eclecticapproach in understanding behavior and

providing psychosocial help


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SENSATION AND PERCEPTION

BY

KHEM RAJ BHATTA


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sensation is the detection or awareness ofphysical energy in the environment due tothe stimulation of sensory receptors presentin the sense organs

Attention is process that compels us to selectsome particular stimuli out of no. of stimulipresent in environment

Perception is the meaningful interpretationof sensory information

perception is the process through which weselect, organize and interpret sensoryinformation

Sensation Perception

Simple initial mental Complex mental process


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Simple initial mental

process

Complex mental process

It consists awareness

and lacks meaning

Perception has

meaningfulness

superiority ordominance of sense

organs

dominance of brain

doesn't include past

experience

includes past experience

passive processes active process


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Preferentially responding to particularstimulus out of number of stimuli presentin the environment

Is the process that compels us to select

some particular stimuli present inenvironment

Both internal (Present in the one who

attends) and external (Present in thethings to be perceived) influence ourattention process


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Factors in the perceiver: The qualities andcharacteristics of the person who perceives

Factors in the target: The qualities andcharacteristics of the object or person to be

perceived The situation: Context in which things are

perceived

Factors in target

Novelty

Motion

Sounds


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Sounds

SizeBackground

ProximityFactors in

perceiver

Attitude

Motives

Interest

Experience

Expectations

Perception

Factors in situation

Time

Work situation

Social Setting


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focuses on what takes place in the perceptualprocess once the information from the situation isreceived

Gestalt Psychologists: Wertheimer, Koffka, Kohler

Gestalt: Meaningful whole or configuration Sum of the parts is different than its whole

We tend to organize stimuli so that there becomesmeaningful whole

www.google.com/inputtools/windows/index.html


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A) Principle of Figure ground relationship: a figure is perceived in relationship to its

background

part of stimulus appears to stand out as anobject (or figure) against a less prominentbackground (or ground)


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Principle of Closure: while confronting anincomplete pattern one ends to complete or closethe pattern or fill in sensory gaps and perceives itas a meaningful whole


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Principle of Similarity: On the basis ofsimilarity, objects or stimuli that look alikeare usually perceived as a unit


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Principle of Continuity: the objects or stimuliare perceived as a unit or group on the basisof their continuity


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Principle of Simplicity: we tend to interpretour sensory stimulation so that we canperceive complex patterns in terms ofsimpler shapes


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Principle of common fate: elements thatmove in the same direction will be perceivedas belonging together and forming a figure

Person perception is concerned with how we perceive


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Person perception is concerned with how we perceive

others behaviors (sometimes ones own)We try to findout the causes behind others behavior

i.e. why individuals behave the way they behave

Attribution: Finding cause behind behavior


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Fritz Heider proposed that we attribute thebehaviors of others either to external orinternal factors

Internally caused behaviors or internally

attributed behaviors are those that arebelieved to be under the personal control ofthe individual


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externally caused behavior is seen asresulting from outside causes; that is, theperson is seen as having been forced into thebehavior by the situation


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Famous theory of attribution Took into account the Heiders notion that

individuals all behaviors can be attributedeither internal or external factors

Kelley proposed that individuals makeattributions based on information gathered inthe form of three informational cues:consensus, distinctiveness, and consistency

Consensus is the degree to which other people in


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Consensus is the degree to which, other people in

same situation, would behave similarly to theperson being observed

Distinctiveness is the extent to which a persons

response varies from situation to situation

Consistency refers to the frequency of a particularbehavior over time


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STEREOTYPING :judging someone on the basis ofones perception of the group to which thatperson belongs

stereotypes may be based on gender, age, race,ethnicity, and even weight

Women caring job


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Drawing a general impression about anindividual on the basis of a singlecharacteristic is called the Halo effect

Physical appearance, mark sheet, dress

Plays role during interview or other judgmentsituations


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where an individual is downgraded becauseof a single negative characteristic or incident

Judgment of once mentally ill person


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our tendency to choose information thatsupports our viewpoints while ignoringinformation that threatens our viewpoints

Our experience, interests etc play role

Marketing man


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Evaluating persons characteristics that areaffected by comparisons with other peoplerecently encountered and who rank higher orlower on same characteristics is called

contrast effect Evaluation of copy and comparison of

interviewee


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This tendency to attribute one's owncharacteristics to other people is calledprojection

The one who is honest may think others

honest


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Tendency to judge according to the recentinformation received

Recent output of individual in work


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Employment InterviewDifferent interviewer view same interviewee

differently

First few minutes heavy role in judgment

Different shortcuts do play role


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Various shortcuts and other perceptualprocesses do play role in evaluating theperformance of employee


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Everyone is expecting from others in jobsetting

our expectations about the people affect ourinteraction with them in such a way that our

expectations are fulfilled: self-fulfillingprophecy or Pygmalion effect


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Assessment of individual effort is asubjective judgment subject to perceptualdistortion and bias


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Belief regarding the loyalty of employee isalso subjective


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is the process whereby a persons attitudes,opinions, beliefs or behaviors are altered orcontrolled by some form of socialcommunication

the effort by one or more individuals tochange the attitudes, perception orbehaviors of one or more others


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Important part of social influence becauseplays key role in many social interactionsincluding leadership, prejudice and helpingbehavior


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Robert Cialdini studied complianceprofessionals : sales person, advertisers, fundraisers etc

On the basis of his first hand experience with

such people Cialdini claimed that compliancerest to some degree on six basic principles


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Friendship/ Liking:Commitment/ Consistency:

Scarcity;

Reciprocity:

Social Validation:

Authority


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Ingratiation: technique of social influencebased on inducing increased liking in thetarget person before influence is attempted


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Foot in the door technique: technique forgaining compliance in which a small requestis followed by a larger one

requester begin with a small request and

then, when this is granted escalates to largerone (the one they actually desired all along)


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Low ball technique: technique of gainingcompliance in which a n offer or deal ischanged to make it less attractive to thetarget person after this person has acceptedit

Bait and Switch tactic: technique in whichitems offered for sale are unavailable or ofvery low quality which leads customers to

buy a more expensive item that is available


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Door- in the face technique: procedure forgaining compliance in which requesters beginwith a large request and then, when this isrefused, retreat to a smaller one (the onethey actually desired)

Thats- not- all technique: technique forgaining compliance in which a requesteroffers additional benefits to target person

before they have decided whether to complywith or reject specific request

Foot in the mouth technique: procedure for


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Foot in the mouth technique: procedure forgaining compliance in which the requesterestablishes some kind of relationship, nomatter how trivial, with the target person,thereby increasing this persons feeling of

obligation to comply

Playing hard to get it: effort to increase


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Playing hard to get it: effort to increasecompliance by suggesting that a person orobject is scarce and hard to obtain

Deadline technique: technique for increasing

compliance in which target persons are toldthat they have only limited time to takeadvantage of some offer or to obtain someitems


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adjusting one's behavior or thinking to match thoseof other people or a group standard

Aschs experiment on conformity

Solomon Asch asked groups of students to


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Solomon Asch asked groups of students toparticipate in a "vision test"

partner (confederates) and real subject

study was really about how the remaining

student would react to the confederates'behavior

questions about the lines such as how long is A,


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questions about the lines such as how long is A,compare the length of A to an everyday object,which line was longer than the other, which lineswere the same length

confederates always provided their answers before

the study participant answered a few questions correctly but eventually

began providing incorrect responses

Nearly 75 percent of the participants went


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Nearly 75 percent of the participants wentalong with the rest of the group at least onetime

participants conformed to the incorrectgroup answer approximately one-third of the

time participants were very accurate in their line

judgments, choosing the correct answer 98percent of the time when individually

level of conformity seen with three or more


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level of conformity seen with three or moreconfederates was far more significant

having one of the confederates give thecorrect answer while the rest of the

confederates gave the incorrect answerdramatically lowered conformity

Group size: increases in increase in group


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Group size: increases in increase in groupmember: very high decreases

Group cohesion: increases with increase

Descriptive and injunctive norms:

what most people do in given situation what ought to be done- what is approved or

disapproved behavior in given situation

is a form of social influence in which one


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is a form of social influence in which one

individual issues orders to another to behave

in specific way and other one follows it.

where an individual acts in response to a

direct order from another individual, who isusually an authority figure

Stanley Milgram researched the effect of


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Stanley Milgram researched the effect ofauthority on obedience

Respondents were told the experiment would


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Respondents were told the experiment wouldstudy the effects of punishment on learningability

offered a token cash award for participating

student or of a teacherHowever, only partner of experimenter as

student

Teachers" were asked to administer increasingly


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g ysevere electric shocks to the "learner" whenquestions were answered incorrectly

Reality: shocks delivered in the experiment were

single 45-volt shock samples given to each teacher Shock levels were labeled from 15 to 450 volts

"slight shock," "moderate shock," "strong shock,"


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g g"very strong shock," "intense shock," "extremeintensity shock "Danger: Severe Shock," "XXX."

"learner" (actor) would begin to grunt at 75complain at 120 volts agonized screams at 285 volts

at 330 volts the actor would be totally silent-that is "The experiment requires that you continue."

Sixty-five percent (65%) of the teachers were


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y p ( )willing to progress to the maximum voltagelevel

Obeyed but justified themselves :blaming

the experimenterObeyed but blamed themselves:

Rebelled

Social behavior is the behavior directed


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toward society or taking place betweenmembers of the society

Attitude is an enduring pattern of evaluative


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g p f

response toward a person, object or issue

generally positive or negative

Many times attitudes determine our behavior

Voting in election

Classical conditioning: learning through


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g g gwhich an initially neutral stimulus comesto elicit a particular response as aconsequence of being repeatedly pairedwith an unconditioned stimulus

Many studies indicate that when initially


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y yneutral words are paired with stimuli thatelicit strong negative reactions for exampleelectric shocks or loud noise the neutralwords acquire capacity to elicit favorable orunfavorable reactions representing ourattitudes to neutral words

Operant conditioning: attitudes are formed


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because of the rewards and punishmentassociated with the responses (orconsequences)

Social Learning: By observing the behaviors

and attitudes of othersGenetics: Inheritance: monozygotic and

dizygotic twins: heredity is important factorin formation of attitudes


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Traditional approach and cognitive approach


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Traditional approach: Who say what towhom; researches primarily focused oncommunication

Focused on characteristics of communicator,communication and audience: Also k/a Yaleapproach

Expertise


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Messages that do not seem to be designed tochange attitude

Attractive communicators

When they are distracted by someextraneous events than when they are payingfull attention to what is being said

Low self esteem of audience

If audience have attitude contrary to that of


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persuader: Two sided approach moreeffective

Rapid speakers: especially when speakers

present views different from those hold bytheir audience: when similar view: less

Messages that arouse strong emotions

etc

approach that attempts to understand


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persuasion by identifying the cognitiveprocesses that play role in persuasion

Elaboration likelihood model and cognitive

dissonance theory

suggests that persuasion can occur in either


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of two distinct ways, differing in the amountof cognitive effort or elaboration theyrequire

Central and peripheral route central route in which attitude change

results from systematic processing ofinformation presented in persuasive

message: message interesting to audience


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Leo Festinger


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we experience the motivation to reducecognitive dissonance (An unpleasant statethat results when we notice inconsistency

between two or more of our attitudes orbetween our attitudes and behaviors)

attempt to reduce inconsistency becomes asource of persuasion

individual tries one of the following


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mechanisms

Changing one of the attitude (or behavior)so that these are more consistent with eachother

Acquiring new information that supportsattitudes or behaviors

Trivialization: concluding that the attitudes

or behaviors are not important

we choose one that requires the least effort


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We use trivialization only when changingattitude is relatively difficult

preconceived belief, opinion, or judgmentd f l i l


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toward a group of people or a single personbecause of race, social class, sexualorientation etc

negative attitude toward members ofspecific social group

Prejudice is negative attitude which iscombination of affect (feeling) behaviour

tendency (inclination to act) and cognition(beliefs)

beliefs about attributes that are thought tob h i i f b f i l


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be characteristic of members of particulargroups

Stereotypes are sometimes overgeneralized, inaccurate, and resistant to newinformation

May be positive or negative

unfair treatment of members of a particular

group based on their membership in thatgroup

Prejudice is attitude: stereotype is belief


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Discrimination is behavior: prejudice inaction

Stereotypes and prejudices are hard to

change with facts

Direct inter group conflict: Direct inter group

fli t i i d t th titi i


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conflict arising due to the competition is oneimportant source of prejudice : Robberscave experiment

Social categorization and ethnocentrism: we

tend to divide the social world into twodistinct category- us Vs them and sharplycontrasting feeling and beliefs are usuallyattached


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Social learning or observational learning:

Di t i i l i


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Direct or vicarious learning Frustration and aggression: Scapegoat theory

(displaced aggression): A person who is notgetting job may see a minority group

individual as source of failure to get job:relatively powerless group

Minorities blamed and aggressed againstespecially in times of economic depression

Reward and punishment (operant conditioning)

Cl i l diti i


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Classical conditioning Social conformity: Individuals show more

prejudice when they move into areas where moreprejudicial attitudes are the norm

Personality traits: Authoritarian personality, rigid inbeliefs, Intolerant of weakness, Suspicious

Inquiry into authoritarian peoples early lives

l d th t hild th ft f d


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revealed that, as children, they often facedharsh discipline. That supposedly led them torepress their hostilities and impulses and toproject them onto out groups

Defense mechanism : Projection

Media can help maintain prejudice: Notfocusing on minorities

illusory correlations: overestimating rates of

negati e beha ior in minorit gro ps


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negative behavior in minority groupsOut group homogeneity and in group

differentiation

Direct inter group contact:


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A common goal

M l i d d


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Mutual interdependence

Equal status of group members

Having informal interpersonal contact

Having multiple contacts with severalmembers of the out group

When social norms are in place that promoteequality

Re categorization: Breaking boundarybetween us and them group


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between us and them group

Learning Not to hate: Use of social learning

Applying cognitive dissonance for attitude

change Encouraging co-operation rather than

competition


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Morgan and others (1986) defined thinking as the form ofinformation processing that goes on during the period between a

stimulus event and the response to it


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stimulus event and the response to it mental manipulation of information

Information processing process

Mental images: representation that mirrors

or resembles the thing it represents: all


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or resembles the thing it represents: allsensory modality

Concept: mental categories for objects,events, experience or idea that are similar toone another in one or more respect

distinguish between members and

nonmembers of the conceptual category


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nonmembers of the conceptual category

Symbols: represent and stand as substitutefor actual object, experiences andactivities:anything that stands for or refersto something other than itself


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Preparation

Incubation


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Incubation

Illumination

Evaluation

Verification

formulated by Lubart (1994) suggests that in

order for creativity to occur multiple (six)


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order for creativity to occur, multiple (six)components must converge

Intellectual abilities

Knowledge

Certain style of thinking: novel way and thinkingglobally as well as locally

Personality characteristics: Risk taking, cantolerate ambiguity

Intrinsically motivated and task oriented

Environment supportive of creative ideas


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Environment supportive of creative ideas

A problem is any conflict or difference

between one situation and another situation


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between one situation and another situationwe wish to produce our goal

Problem-solving refers to the mental processthat people go through to discover, analyzeand solve problems

Eg: Solving numerical problems

Problem identification and understanding:

What problem is issues and obstacles attached


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What problem is, issues and obstacles attached,possible cause: makes complete picture aboutproblem

Individuals mental capacity, experience,

knowledge etc play role Clear understanding is 50 % solution

Generation of potential solutions:

Possible solutions listed out


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Possible solutions listed out

Capacity depends on individual factors,experience and understanding of problem


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Trying out of solution and evaluation of

result:


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result: Each solutions actually tried out

Evaluated in terms of outcomes they produce

The solution that seems to be most effective inbecomes workable solution

Trial and error: in which a number of possible

solutions are tried out until one succeeds


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solutions are tried out until one succeeds

Algorithms: is a set of rules which if followedcorrectly, will guarantee a solution to theproblem

Heuristic: are sets of rule, usually based on

our past experience with problems that are


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our past experience with problems, that arelikely to lead a solution but do not guaranteea solution

Analogy: application of techniques thatworked in similar situation in past

tendency people have to only use solutions

that have worked in the past rather than


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that have worked in the past rather thanlooking for alternative ideas

State of mental preparedness

often work as a heuristic, making it a usefulproblem-solving tool

also lead to inflexibility, making it moredifficult to find effective solutions

the tendency of individual to think of using

objects as they have been used in the past


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objects as they have been used in the past

Inability to think of other uses of particularobject


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Decisions are the choices made from among

two or more alternatives


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two or more alternatives

Decision making is the process of makinga choice between a number of options

process of weighing the advantages anddisadvantages of each alternative to reach adecision

Rational decision making implies making

consistent, value maximizing choices within


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consistent, value maximizing choices withinspecified constraints

process which derives maximum utility andprobability within certain limitations

Define the problem

What the problem is


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p

Issues attached with it

Identify the decision criteria:

Making criteria for decision making

decision makers interests, values, and personal

preferences etc. may play role

Should be scientific and unbiased

Allocate weights to the criteria

Allocating weight to various alternatives


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g g

Prioritizing

Develop the alternatives:

Listing all alternatives


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g

Evaluate the alternative

Alternatives evaluated in terms of the decisioncriteria

Select the best alternative

Choosing best among the given alternatives

Over- confidence bias: over estimating ones

ability: low esteem and low intelligence:


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y gHigh in over confidence

Anchoring bias: tendency to fixate on initialinformation, from which one then fails toadequately adjust for subsequentinformation: Also k/a foculism

Representative bias: that the more closely an

event or object resembles typical example of


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j yp psome concept or category, the more likely itis to belong to that concept or category

Confirmation bias: a tendency to search for

or interpret information in a way that


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p yconfirms one's preconceptions, leading tostatistical errors

Availability bias: Is the tendency for peopleto base their judgments on information thatis readily available

Hindsight bias: Is the tendency to believe

falsely, after an outcome of an event is


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y,actually known, that one would haveaccurately predicted that outcome

Escalation of commitment: Is an increasedcommitment to previous decision making inspite of negative information


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