ANGLAIS S5 COURS 1Eacutenonceacute et situation drsquoeacutenonciationEacutenonceacute suite phonique ou graphique produite pas un eacutenonciateurSituation drsquoeacutenonciation conditions de production drsquoun eacutenonceacuteEacutenonciateur Temps drsquoeacutenonciation Time passeacutepreacutesentfutur ne tense temps grammaticalLa relation preacutedicativeCouplage drsquoun sujet grammatical et drsquoun preacutedicat SP I must dash off to the gym nowI dash ti the gym nowPreacutedicat ce qui est dit du sujet laquo S raquo au moyen de la base verbale et de ses compleacutementsIL y a autant de preacutedicats que de bases verbalesHe closed the book get up and stood for a minute watching the playP1 He close the bookP2 he get upP3 he stand for a minute watching the playP4 he coach the playLe preacutedicat est la partie signifiante qui se place en avantLa prosodieRythme et intonation- rythme variation en dureacutee et en intensiteacute- intonation variation de hauteur des syllabesLa prosodie est porteuse de lrsquoexpression verbale de lrsquoaffectiviteacuteSelon la place de lrsquoaccent cela renseigne sur - la nature grammaticale drsquoun mot (preSENTPREsent)- formes emphatiquesformes assertives ( I CAN see itIcan see it)- preacutepositionparticules adverbiales (Irsquom waiting for the bus What are you waintigfor )- noms composeacutesgroupes nominauxIntonationElle deacutetermine - lrsquointerrogationsimple constat Itrsquos raining isnrsquot it (ton descendant = constat)Itrsquos raining isnrsquot it (ton montant = question)- La phrase assertivequestionDiscours prosodique (expression speechdiscours atone (flat tomeless)Meacutelodies de base have you finish your homework Intonation descendante fallIntonation montante riseFall assertion courante he asked for the adress of a photographbull Impeacuteratif listen to mebull Question What are you looking for bull Exclammation What an interesting paper bull Tags (fausse question) lovely isnrsquot it Rise bull questions fermeacutees Do you like apple bull Questions expressives how is your mother Accent drsquointensiteacute3 regravegles principales - Regravegles du lion terminaison drsquoun mot consonne + i + voyelleAccent sur la syllabe preacuteceacutedant la 1egravere consonneEx A lsquorsquottenion ndash hesirsquorsquotation ndash exrsquorsquoceptionnel delsquorsquolicious exrsquorsquoperienceBut teacuteleacutevision- Regravegle en _ie mots termineacutes par _ic _cat _ically _icism _ics

Accent sur la syllabe preacuteceacutedent le _icEx dorsquorsquomestic plarsquorsquotonic lsquorsquocristicism antibi lsquorsquooticBut politique- Regravegle en _ity mots termineacutes par _ityAccent sur lrsquoanteacutepeacutenultiegraveme (3egraveme syllabe agrave partir de la fin)Ex harsquorsquobility ambi lsquorsquoguity corsquorsquommodityRegravegle du lion Regravegle en _ic Regravegle en _ityConrsquorsquovenientAnticirsquorsquopationBersquorsquohaviorSusrsquorsquopiciousStimursquorsquolationSeparsquorsquorationAutorsquorsquomaticScienrsquorsquotificallyPhilorsquorsquosophicallyCharactersquorsquoristicDyrsquorsquonamicBiorsquorsquologicallyResponsarsquorsquobilityImpossirsquorsquobilityAssirsquorsquoduityUnirsquorsquoversityPlasrsquorsquoticityCours anglais ndeg2 Alphabet phoneacutetiqueQuickTimetrade et undeacutecompresseur TIFF (non compresseacute)sont requis pour visionner cette imageLa phrase complexeIntroUne phrase complexe crsquoest lrsquointervention de plusieurs RP (relations preacutedicatives couplagesujetpreacutedicat (base verbale + compleacutement eacuteventuel))bull Diffeacuterence entre phrase complexe et phrase composeacutee- phrase simple 1 RPAdults may become dorbiful ( ) of their ability to learn a new language- Phrase composeacutee au moins 2RP juxtaposeacutes ou coordonneacutesAfter the funeral her brother appropriated their parentrsquos house and she took the carhar inhertame ( )- Phrase complexe au moins 2 RP dont une subordonneacuteeThere is a critical period for learning a record language that shuts down around theorset of puberty (cette seconde partie est deacutependante de la premiegravere car seule ellene veut rien dire)- La phrase composeacutee coordonneacutee au moins 2 RP coordonneacutes (and or but)After the funeral her brother appropriated their parentsrsquo house and she took the caras her inhertamesThey can run after the mouse and eat itAutonomie grammatical 2 propositions autonomesSolidariteacute seacutematique 2 propositions lieacutees par le sensSolidariteacute syntaxique 1 sujet 2 propositions- La phrase composeacutee juxtaposeacutee au moins 2 RP juxtaposeacutes ( - ) autonomieplus grande que 2 RP coordonneacutes1Deux points (1) he had to scrap the game safety work wat not finishP1 P2(2) What she meant was I want you to be weakP1 P2Nature de la relation entre P1 et P2 (1) justificative color means laquo because raquo P2 explique P1

(2) expansive color means laquo explanation raquo P2 reacutepond agrave lrsquoattente de P12VirguleHe offered her a seat lookek through the prints praised them and explained theyhadnrsquot the slightest chance of being publishedRelation seacutemantique eacutetroite entre les propositions = jusxtaposition de segmentsmis sur 1 mecircme plan Association entre les diffeacuterentes propositions3 Point virgule (semi-color)He was a good-looking man he was at the peak of his scholarly career he waseven feared by his colleaguesE (eacutenonciateur) regroupe les diffeacuterents aspects de la personnaliteacute de laquo he raquo creacuteationdrsquoun lien entre 3 caracteacuteristiques de He Le point virgule permet de regrouperplusieurs propositions indeacutependantes sans les dissociations (par rapport au point)Associations DissociationVirgule deux points point virgule pointLa phrase composeacuteeTags ndash les eacutenonceacutes qui englobent des questions tags sont aussi des phrases composeacutees sanscoordonnantYou like them donrsquot you P1 P2You donrsquot like them do you P1 P2Le lien entre les 2 P est un miroir inverseacute P1 annonce P2 demande confirmationStructures correacutelativesLes structures correacutelatives en laquo the morethe more raquo laquo the lessthe less raquo laquo the moretheless raquo laquo the less the more raquo supposent une binariteacute obligatoire(1) The more you scratch the more it itchesP1 P2(2) the less hear about you the better I feelP1 P2(1) augmentation correacutelative marqueacutee directement(2) progression correacutelative inversement proportionnelleANGLAIS L3 COURS Ndeg3PhonologySemanticsSyntaxPragnoticsIgnSpeechPhonemeMorpheneVocalCommunicativeSarcasticallySystemPhrase complexe proposition principale dans laquelle on a une propositionsubordonneacuteePhrase simples composeacutees complexes- IQ tests are traditionally viewed as a quantitative measure of a personrsquosintelligence = simple- Children who score very well as IQ tests are often tracked into programs for thelaquo gifted raquo while those do very poorly are traded into laquo remedial raquo programsComplexe despite their prevalence the true meaning and import of IQ tests aresubjects of some controversy in the fields of education psychology and neurosciences= simple- Over the past year the subjects of intelligence a possible biological basis forintelligence and ways to improve intelligence have all received a significant amountof media attention = simple- This article is a short review of somme of these studies = simple- There seem to be two man camps on the sbject of intelligence = complexe

- In one camp are the researchers aho not only support the concept of IQ as a measureof intelligence but also believe that there is a biological switch that govern thisintelligence such as a gene or some kind of brain chemical = relative donc complexe- These reseachers also believe that IQ and this intelligence can be improved by externalmeans such as through diefary supplements or specific learning exercices = complexe- In the second camp are the researchers who reject the concept of a single definition ofintelligence and sufffest instead that human intelligence is too complexLa phrase complexe marqueurs de subordinationConjonctions de subordination 1 Surbordonnants apparaissant seuls After (al)though as because before if once sincehellip2 Combinaison de plusieurs termes - termineacutes par that in that so that such that except that in order thathellip- termineacutes par that facultatif now (that) provided (that) supposing (that) considering(that) seeing (that)- termineacutes par as as far as as long as as soon as so long as so ashellip- termineacutes par than sooner than rather than (au lieu de )- autres as if even if if only as though in casehellip3 Conjonctions correacutelatives combinaison de deux marqueurs une conjonction dans lasubordonneacutee et un autre terme dans la proposition englobanteIf then althoughyetnevertheless ashellipso whetherhellipor morelessthan assohellipthat suchas suchhellipthat no soonerhellip than4 Autres indicateurs de subordinationMarqueurs qui ne sont pas des conjonctions de subordination mais signalent un rapport desubordination- Termes en WHa- Subordonneacutees interrogatives I wander WHO it can beb- Subordonneacutees exclamatives Irsquom surprised HOW beautiful it turned out to bec- Relatives this is the man WHO came yesterday- Relative en THAT- The man that came yesterday- The only one that is worth read- Attention THAT relatif et conjonction (he said that he would come back)- Inversion sujet-auxiliaire- propositions conditionnelles- Had I known I would never have come if I had known- Were it not for you if it were not for you- Absence de verbe conjugueacute- Thinking it was too late he decided to stay home as he thought it was too late- Absence de signe de subordination - Conjonctives he said he would not come he said thathellip- Relatives he is the man I was telling you about he is the man whom I was tellingyou aboutAnglais L3 cours ndeg4Human memoryA set of stories where to put information A set of processes that act on stories3 differents stories - this sensory information storie- the short-term store- the long-temr store3 processes- encoding- maintenance- retrieval1048766 Sensory informations store ignored or paid attention to ignored writtent overIf paid attention to encoded to short term store1048766 Short-term store a mited storage capacity submitted to decay (from 12 to 30seconds) Interference (new information displaces older information) mental rehearsal(repeat the information subvocally) elaboration rehearsal (se reacutepeacuteter le mot dans

notre tecircte)Long-term store large quantity of informations maintains informations for very long periodsof timeattentionSENSORY MEMORY WORKING MEMORY LONG TERM MEMORYencodingretrievalrehearsalInfo not attended to forgetting forgettingLong term memoryDeclarative ProceduralSemantic EpisodicLike riding a bikeYour lastbirthday partyThis target article discusses the verbal working memory system used in sentencecomprehension We review the idea of working memory as a short duration system in whichsmall amounts of information are simultaneously stored and manipulated in the service of atask and that syntactic processing in sentence comprehension requires such a storage andcomputational system We inquire whether the working memory system used in syntacticprocessing is the same as that used in verbally mediated tasks involving conscious controlledprocessing Various forms of evidence are considered the relationship between individualdifferences in working memory and individual differences in the efficiency of syntacticprocessing the effect of concurrent verbal memory load on syntactic processing andsyntactic processing in patients with poor short term memory poor working memory oraphasia The experimental results suggest that the verbal working memory system specializedfor assigning the syntactic structure of a sentence and for using that structure in determiningsentence meaning is distinct from the working memory system that underlies the use ofsentence meaning to accomplish further functions We present a theory of the components ofthe verbal working memory system and suggestions as to its neural basis(si vous voulez le texte dans son inteacutegraliteacute je lrsquoai trouveacute ici httpwwwbbsonlineorgdocumentsa00000441bbs00000441-00bbscaplanhtml)En franccedilais Cet article discutesrsquointeacuteresse au systegraveme de meacutemoire de travail utiliseacute pour la compreacutehensiondes phrases Nous passons en revue lrsquoideacutee que la meacutemoire de travail correspond agrave un systegravemede courte dureacutee ougrave une petite quantiteacute drsquoinformations est simultaneacutement stockeacutee et manipuleacuteetravailleacutee pour reacutepondre agrave une tacircche et que le traitement syntaxique de la compreacutehension dephrase srsquoappuie sur un tel systegraveme de stockageOn cherche agrave savoir si le systegraveme de meacutemoire de travail utiliseacute dans le traitement syntaxiqueest le mecircme que celui utiliseacute dans les tacircches verbales impliquant des traitements conscients etcontrocircleacutes Les reacutesultats expeacuterimentaux suggegraverent que le systegraveme de meacutemoire de travail verbalspeacutecialiseacuteattribueacute agrave la structure syntaxique drsquoune phrasehellip On preacutesente une theacuteorie descomposantes du systegraveme de meacutemoire de travail et des suggestions concernant les basesneuronalesLA PHRASE COMPLEXE- Proposition agrave verbe fini- Proposition agrave verbe non finiVerbe fini le verbe dont la terminaison varie en fonction de la personne du temps dunombre (she goes out every night)Verbe non fini teminaison est non reacuteveacutelatrice du temps ou de la personne (obstructing theforr causes delay)(rien compris )LES SUBORDONNEacuteES Agrave VERBE NON FINI1 Infinitives en TO some were forced tu work at nightElles peuvent aussi ecirctre introduites pas laquo as if to in order to so as to raquo2 Infinitives sans TO as always he tried to help her sort things outElles peuvent aussi ecirctre introduites par laquo rather than sooner than raquo3 Propositions en ING standing there she fixed him4 Proposition en ED (participe passeacute) embarrassed she changed the subject

Elles peuvent aussi ecirctre introduites par when althoughtLe verbe non fini deacuteclenche neacutecessairement une deacutependance agrave une proposition agrave verbe finiLES PROPOSITIONS Agrave VERBE FINI1 les subordonneacutees relatives jouent un rocircle de compleacutementation introduction parWH that ou rienShe is known as as processing scientist the researcher who paved the way for furtherexperiments Relative who paved the way for further experiments expansion dusyntagme normal laquo the researcher raquo2 types de relatives restrictives et non restrictives (appositives) - restrictives identification de lrsquoanteacuteceacutedent permet de creacuteer un sous groupe agrave lrsquointeacuterieurdrsquoune classe de reacutefeacuterents those who donrsquot understand can ask questions (crsquoest uneideacutee ccedila )- appositives apportent une information suppleacutementaire sans identifier lrsquoanteacuteceacutedent this paper which was written by Delaene in 1997 is the first one to assess the neuralnetwork in L2 moderate subjects preacutecision apporteacutee apregraves-coup souvent mise entreparenthegravesesType particulier which he never rang back which rather surprised me rupture inteacuterative commentaire de lrsquoeacutenonciateurCOURS 5AMNESIAAmnesia is memomy less generaly caused by a brain trauma (amnesia due to psychologicaltrauma is less well documented)- retrograde amnesia less of memory of events prior to the trauma- anterograde amnesia less of memory for events occuring after the trauma (theirability to form new memories)HM and the study of anterograde amnesia - HM had bilateral temporal lobe epilepsy- As treatment he had a bilateral medial temporal lobectomy- This cured his epilepsy but left him whith severe anterograde amnesia He has beenunable to form new long term memories since the surgeryHMrsquos anterograde amnesia - HM cannot form new memories of people or events canrsquot remember his doctorscanrsquot remember his testing sessions- HM can remember (pretty much) his lige before the surgery some mild loss for the 2years prior surgery- Normal workinf memory (7+-2)- Basically he got stuck in time when he had his surgery 1953) il est resteacute bloqueacute aumoment de son opeacuterationHowever it turns out that HMrsquos performance improves on tasks - miror drawing task trace image while looking in mirror this is hard to do HMrsquosperformance improves or this task oven though he doesnrsquot remember over havingdone it beforeBases on HMrsquoS symptoms multiple memory systems (en regardant ce qursquoil se passait pourlui on a reacuteussit agrave mettre en eacutevidence plusieurs systegravemes de meacutemoire) - explicite (deacuteclarative) memory conscious items be verbally expressed- two systems episodic (the even of our lives) semantic (information about the world the meaning of words)- Implicite (procedural) memory non conscious expressed by improved performanceor taskLA PHRASE COMPLEXE CLASSIFICATION DES SUBORDONNEacuteES2 types de comparaison 1 comparaison drsquoeacutequivalence (=) ou de non eacutequivalence (+_)John is AS gifted AS Peter (eacutequivalence)John is MORE gifted THAN Peter ( non eacutequivalence +)John is LESS gifted THAN Peter (non eacutequivalence -)2 Comparaison de suffisance (enoughso) ou drsquoexcegraves (too much)He is gifted enough to succeed (suffisance)He is too bright to fail (excegraves)

Subordonneacutes comparatives - un eacuteleacutement compareacute he is as gifted he is too bright- un eacuteleacutement de comparaison as Peterto fail= AS AS+ MORE THAN- LESS THANSuffisance ENOUGH TOExcegraves TOO TOExercices trouvez le type de subordonneacutees - Children who score very weel on IQ tests are often tracked into programs for the gifted(while those who do very poorly are tracked into remedial programs- There seem to be two main camps on the subject of intelligence (P1 verbe non fini infinitive)In one camp are the researchers who not only support the concept of IQ as ameasure of intelligence but also believe that there is a biological switch that governs thisintelligence such as a gene or some kind of brain chemical (P1rsquo relative restrictive)These researchers also believe that IQ and thus intelligence can be improved byexternal means such as through dietary supplements or specific learning exercises (P1 eten souligneacute P14 conjonctive)In the second camp are the researchers who reject the concept of a single definition ofintelligence and suggest instead that human intelligence is too complex a mesh of qualitieswhich cannot be measured by a single score on a single test These researchers alsobelieve that intelligence can be improved but only by incorporating a much widerdefinition of intelligence than is currently in place in our society (P1 et en souligneacute P14relative restricitive)instead that human intelligence is too complex a mesh of qualities which cannot bemeasured by a single score on a single test These researchers also believe that intelligencecan be improved but only by incorporating a much wider definition of intelligence than iscurrently in place in our society (P1 et en souligne P1rsquo conjonctive)but only by incorporating a much wider definition of intelligence than is currently in placein our society (P2 comparative)LA PHRASE COMPLEXE ETUDE FONCTIONNELE DESSUBORDONNEacuteESEtude fonctionnelle srsquointeacuteresse aux propositions subordonneacuteesFonctions syntaxiques sujetcompleacutementattributadverbialSujet althought acquiring the grammar of onersquos first language does seem to be subject to acritical periodComplement - compleacutement drsquoobjet direct I saw John- Compleacutement drsquoattribut I bought John a nice sweat- Compleacutement propositionnel its depends on John- Compleacutement drsquoadjectif she was busy typing a lettreAdverbial compleacutement circonstancielRenseigne sur la circonstance du procegraves lieu temps maniegraverehellipLes conjonctions ont une valeur seacutemantique propreTEMPS After before since until when while as soon as onceLIEU Where whereverCONDITIONNELLE If unless provided that so long as on condition thatCONCESSIVE Thought althought while whereas even if if whenCAUSE Because since as v-ingBUT To so as to in order to so that on order thatCONSEQUENCE So thatCOMPARAISON As if as thoughtANGLAIS L3 COURS 7 (question sur le texte de Schaffausen)a he was living on his ownb b he was paralysedc He experienced ans attack characterised by less of consciousness muscles spamsans rigiding (definition de lrsquoeacutepilepsie)According to DR Scaville epilepsy is due to a the morphological asymetry of the hemispheres

b electrical impulses located in the hippocampus areasc electrical impulses spreading throughout the whole brainThe hippocampus the amygdala and the entorhinal and perihinal cortices are situateda in the cortexb in both temporal lobesc in the brainstemHow can you explain the plural laquo hippocampi raquo in laquo when he lost his hippocampi Henrybecame frozen in 1953 raquo (le pluriel de lrsquohippocampe)Lashleyrsquos experiments carried out on animalsa fit in with the precise nature of henryrsquoa amnesiab led him to conclude that biological study of memory is impossiblec prove that rats and monkeys behave differentlyHenryrsquos amnesia due to his surgery enabled researchers ti uderstand the role of hippocampusa in short-term memoryb in long-term memoryc in procedural memoryd in long-term memory formationHM can no longera play tennisb store new pieces of informationsc remember events prior to 1753d retain about seven pieces of information for about thirty secondsHenryrsquos case allows researchers to hypothesize that the hippocampus isunnecessary for the formation of long term memoriesnecessary for unconscious long-term skill memoriesrequired for the formation of short-term memoriesrequired for consolidationToday henry likeslistening to mystery showsgoing ice-skatingwatching detective showsdoing puzzlesMemory was largely studied befoe henryrsquos operation true or falseHenryrsquos case is now confirmed by other simular cases true or falseHenry has got lany friends true or falseHe can now live on his own true or falseSCRIPT AUDIOKey word mental illness procedure ice pick lobotomy emotionOn january 17 1946 psychobiologist nomed Freeman launched a radical new era in thetratment of mental illness in the countrySCRIPT 2 si vous voulez eacutecouter le texte crsquoest lagrave httpwwwbrainconnectioncomtopicsmain=fahm-memoryHoward dullyrsquos storya How did he go to Washington by flyb where did he go in Washington GW universityc What did he want to see my filesd What did he love to do e What did he find in his file f What was he must interested by g What did he want to understand h How did was he i Who want to see Dr Freeman j What happened to Howard lsquos nother How old was he then k What about the relationships between his stepmother (megravere adoptive) and him l What did his stepmother want H Dully srsquoest fait opeacuterer par Freeman et veut comprendre ce qursquoil srsquoest passeacute il va doncchercher son dossier meacutedicalm how did Howard read when Freeman explained ti him what had happenedn What did her stepmother decide to do Why

o Can you explain the term laquo word of the stock raquo (pupille de la nation)p What questions have haunted thoward q Did Howard dare to speak to his father r What happened to his stepmother s What did Howard decide to do t What couldnrsquot howard believe Toutes les reacuteponses sont dans le texte ndeg4Voca Deserve meacuteriterPaper-route ditribution de magazines dans les boicirctes aux lettresMake it stick soyez ferme Thrust enfonceacuteQuiver freacutemirPathways route qui relie un endroit agrave un autreSever couper = out offTexte 1This target article discusses the verbal working memory system used in sentencecomprehension We review the idea of working memory as a short duration system in whichsmall amounts of information are simultaneously stored and manipulated in the service of atask and that syntactic processing in sentence comprehension requires such a storage andcomputational system We inquire whether the working memory system used in syntacticprocessing is the same as that used in verbally mediated tasks involving conscious controlledprocessing Various forms of evidence are considered the relationship between individualdifferences in working memory and individual differences in the efficiency of syntacticprocessing the effect of concurrent verbal memory load on syntactic processing andsyntactic processing in patients with poor short term memory poor working memory oraphasia The experimental results suggest that the verbal working memory system specializedfor assigning the syntactic structure of a sentence and for using that structure in determiningsentence meaning is distinct from the working memory system that underlies the use ofsentence meaning to accomplish further functions We present a theory of the components ofthe verbal working memory system and suggestions as to its neural basis

Texte 2IQ tests are traditionally viewed as a quantitative measure of a persons intelligenceChildren who score very well on IQ tests are often tracked into programs for the giftedwhile those who do very poorly are tracked into remedial programs Despite theirprevalence the true meaning and import of IQ tests are subjects of some controversy in thefields of education psychology and neuroscienceOver the past year the subjects of intelligence a possible biological basis for intelligence andways to improve intelligence have all received a significant amount of media attention Thisarticle is a short review of some of these studiesThere seem to be two main camps on the subject of intelligence In one camp are theresearchers who not only support the concept of IQ as a measure of intelligence but alsobelieve that there is a biological switch that governs this intelligence such as a gene or somekind of brain chemical These researchers also believe that IQ and thus intelligence can beimproved by external means such as through dietary supplements or specific learningexercisesIn the second camp are the researchers who reject the concept of a single definition ofintelligence and suggest instead that human intelligence is too complex a mesh of qualitieswhich cannot be measured by a single score on a single test These researchers also believethat intelligence can be improved but only by incorporating a much wider definition ofintelligence than is currently in place in our societyLets start with some of the studies that fall into the first camp of opinion on IQ as a measureof intelligenceIn July 1999 researchers at the University of New Mexico announced a study linking levelsof two brain chemicals to performance on IQ testsWilliam Brooks and his colleagues used brain-imaging techniques to measure levels ofcholine and N-acetylasparate (NAA) in the brains of 26 healthy volunteersThe researchers found that people with low levels of choline and high levels of NAA tended

to have the higher scores on IQ tests The researchers suggested that a manipulation of thelevels of these brain chemicals such as with dietary supplements could increase IQ scoresMethods for increasing IQ scores abound in the press and are also the focus of a number ofacademic articlesThe well discussed and much publicized Mozart effect stems from a Wisconsin study thatsuggests that listening to Mozart boosts IQ Although a number of later studies suggest thatthe effect may not be as powerful as originally thought many preschools have institutedprograms such as Mozart hour to give their students the musics perceived benefitsPopular dietary supplements such as gingko biloba and phosphatidylserine are advertised asbrain enhancement products that improve mental functions such as problem solving andmemory although there is very little scientific evidence to support these claims There is evena firm out of Beverly Hills that offers a product called Brain Gum Their promise for theproduct is encapsulated in their phone number 1-888 IQ BOOSTIn the field of child development Linda Acredolo a psychology professor at the University ofCalifornia Davis has found that babies who are taught sign language starting at the age of 11months tend to have higher average IQs when they reach second grade than their peers whowere not taught sign language (scores were 114 for the sign language proficient 102 for thenon-signers)Behavioral experimentation on mice is a traditional tool for the study of gene manipulation onintelligence Last September researchers at Princeton reported that genetically engineeredmice that over-express a particular form of the brain protein called the NMDA receptorperform better at a number of behavioral tasks than normal mice The researchers suggest thatthis receptor could be a target for treating learning and memory disorders-this creation of amouse that performs well on memory tasks has been described as a possible first step inmaking human beings smarterOne question should be considered Does performance on IQ tests really tell us somethingconcrete about a persons intelligence This leads us to the second camp of researchers-thosewho argue that traditional IQ tests do not tell the whole storyHoward Gardner a professor of education at Harvard University proposes the theory ofmultiple intelligences in which there are at least eight different types of intelligence all ofwhich must be taken into account when establishing a vision of a persons abilities andpotentialMichael Howe a psychology professor at Exeter University has spent ten years studying thedevelopment of high achievers such as Mozart Michael Faraday and Isaac Newton In hisbook Genius Explained Howe argues that most geniuses dont have some ineffable qualitythat promotes their intelligence above that of the general population He argues that whatdistinguished these admittedly remarkable people was incredible persistence and devotion totheir particular field of interest Howe believes that sheer intelligence as measured by an IQtest wont automatically lead to success without the added qualities of determination andperseveranceAnother researcher Dr Ken Richardson also argues that the idea of an IQ score is too strictof a limit on the definition of intelligence In his book The Making of Intelligence he suggeststhat the idea of a single cause or kind of intelligence is not supported by our ever-increasingunderstanding of the mind and its functions His main idea is that intelligence is not a staticthing that is coded for us by our genes but is instead a result of a dynamic interaction betweenthe mental process with which we represent the world and the culture in which we liveAccording to Dr Richardson society has as much an influence on our intelligence as do ourgenesThomas Edisons famous definition of genius as 99 perspiration and 1 inspiration suggeststhat intelligence is as much a product of nurture as it is of nature However it is the questionof the origin of that mysterious 1 that fuels much of the interest in IQ scores memoryenhancing drugs and mind-boosting music Research results from the smart mouse andfrom the New Mexico study on brain chemical levels suggest that there may in fact be abiological quality be it gene or chemical that is the seat of that extra brain power that detailsthe difference between smart and not-smart gifted and remedial Researchers likeGardner and Richardson argue instead that the brain is too plastic and complex forintelligence to be limited by the actions of a single gene chemical or concept of IQAll of this intriguing research tells us that just as in so many areas of science more time andstudy is necessary before we can hope to find a clear answer In the end the final answer to

the question of intelligence will most likely be a multi-layered vision of human potential thatcombines all of these studies in biology psychology and cultural contextTexte 3Is There a Critical Period for Learning a Foreign LanguageJune 2000by Lisa ChipongianThe Myth of Missed OpportunitiesA popular misconception regarding second-language learning is that there is a window orcritical period for learning a second language that shuts down around the onset of puberty Inhis article Is There a Child Advantage in Learning Foreign Languages Brad Marshallpoints out the harm this misconception can cause Adults may become doubtful of their abilityto learn a new language Their teachers may become skeptical too tending to plod throughtheir classes feeling there is little hope of success When it comes to learning a foreignlanguage many believe that the adult brain is in a state of shutdown relative to the childsneurological state of readinessEarly Foreign Language Instruction is Not a Magical ToolIn The Age Factor in Second Language Acquisition David Singleton concedes that in secondlanguageinstruction younger = better in the long run But this is a general rule with plentyof exceptions The exceptions include the 5 percent of adult bilinguals who master a secondlanguage even though they begin learning it when they are well into adulthood long after anycritical period has presumably come to a closeBoth research and the informal observations of those who are in daily contact with secondlanguagelearners suggest that an early start in a second language is neither a strictlynecessary nor a universally sufficient condition for the attainment of native-like proficiencyGiven the enormous variation in peoples experience of second languagesmdasheven (orespecially) in the classroommdashthis ought to be a truismAs John T Bruer author of The Myth of the First Three Years states One of the dangers oftheemphasis on critical periods is that it prompts us to pay too much attention to whenlearning occurs and too little attention to how learning might best occur Marshall agreespointing out that learning a foreign language in elementary schoolmdashwhat most researchersgenerally agree is the ideal timemdashis not a magical tool for creating perfect second-languagespeakers Timing in other words is not everythingMany assume that critical learning periods apply not only to second-language learning but toother school subjects like math and reading Such beliefs writes Bruer have raised needlessconcerns among educators For instance once a critical period is over is lost academicground irrecoverable Such concerns arise from a simplistic and over-generalized applicationof critical periods to learning The extreme view that children must learn a foreign languageearly or not at all grows out of popular images of critical periods as closing abruptly likewindows slamming shutIs There a Critical Period for Learning a Foreign Language - Page 2Foreign-Language Learning and Critical PeriodsThe question of whether or not there is a critical period for learning a foreign language is noteasily answered But there is certainly no specific age at which the window of opportunitycloses completely As with the visual system the language system consists of several featuresand is not as Singleton writes a monolith Certain features of the language system may bemore related to distinct critical periods than others According to Ellen Bialystok and KenjiHakuta authors of In Other Words The controversy over the optimal age for learning asecond language really hinges on the acquisition of a subset of possible linguistic features andfunctionsThe Grammar-Learning Window Never Completely ClosesAlthough acquiring the grammar of ones first language does seem to be subject to a criticalperiod which ends around puberty the issue of whether or not there is also a critical period forsecond-language grammar acquisition is more complex In The Myth of the First Three YearsBruer does not state that there is a critical period for second-language grammar learninginstead he claims that there may be some maturational constraints on second-languagegrammar learningBialystok and Hakuta complicate the response to whether or not there is an optimal age forsecond-language grammar acquisition even further They point out that learning somelinguistic features like tense seems to be affected by age yet other linguistic structures like

word order are resistant to any effect of the learners age In their book In Other WordsBialystok and Hakuta state that syntax remains accessible throughout life even though thecircumstances of our lives may muddy that access Overall the amazing human ability tolearn grammar they argue remains with us as long as we remain humanPhonological Acquisition Is Age-SensitiveUnlike grammar learning second-language phonological acquisition is subject to a sensitiveperiod The decline in unaccented learning of a foreign language is progressive howeverand not characterized by a predictably abrupt change According to a study by James Flegesimilar and not entirely novel sounds are the ones that are affected by age In other wordsnew sounds are easier to pronounce with native-like accuracy than sounds that are similar butnot identical to those found in ones first languageAccording to Bruer we know almost nothing about the stages within the critical period forphonological learning We do know Bruer continues that the system remains plastic andable to tune itself to a second phonologyuntil early in the second decade of lifeVocabulary Learning Has No Critical PeriodOf vocabulary acquisition in ones first language Singleton writes there is no point at whichvocabulary acquisition can be predicted to cease There is also Singleton suggests nocritical period for learning vocabulary in a second languageAccording to the results of a study by Helen Neville using brain recordings semanticinformation seems to be processed in the same way by both speakers of English as a secondlanguage and native English speakers throughout life In The Myth of the First Three YearsBruer relates this consistency in how we acquire vocabulary throughout life to brainmaturation how we process vocabulary does not change with brain maturation as one wouldexpect it would if it were a form of time-limited experience-expectant learning It seemsinstead that the neural circuitry we need to process semantic information and learn vocabularycomes on-line early in development and does not change as we matureConclusion Younger = Better in the Long RunIt may be that the image of a window slamming shut as an analogy for the effect of age onones ability to acquire a foreign language should be replaced by Bruers analogy of areservoir that gradually evaporates This analogy suggests a progressive rather than abruptdecline in ability over time Regarding critical periods in second-language acquisitionBialystok and Hakuta suggest that the difference between child and adult learners is morequantitative (or a matter of degree) than qualitative Overallthe evidence of a critical periodfor acquiring a second language is at best confusing Although the evidence argueBialystok and Hakuta indicates that the learning process is the same for both adults andchildren and that second-language learning is not necessarily subject to biological criticalperiods they do state that on average there is a continuous decline in ability with ageOlder beginners often show an initial advantage over younger beginners in learning a newlanguage however over time the younger beginners usually overtake the older beginnersThere seems then to be according to Bialystok and Hakuta a tortoise-and-the-hare effector as Singleton has put it younger = better in the long run For this reason we should by nomeans discount the importance of learning a second language early As Bruer states Thebrain and early childhood literature is correct to emphasize that second-language learning isincreasingly important and that often American schools provide too little language instructiontoo lateWhat should be questioned or re-evaluated are the underlying assumptions that side-step theissue of how best to teach foreign languages The age at which one first encounters a secondlanguage explains Singleton is only one of the many determinants of the ultimate level ofproficiency attained in that language We must not neglect other considerations includingwhat neuroscience is now telling us about how second languages might best be taught andlearnedTexte 4The Day His World Stood Stillby Joanna SchaffhausenWhen twenty-seven year old Henry M entered the hospital in 1953 for radical brain surgerythat was supposed to cure his epilepsy he was hopeful that the procedure would change hislife for the better Instead it trapped him in a mental time warp where TV is always a newinvention and Truman is forever president The removal of large sections of his temporallobes left Henry unable to form any new personal memories but his tragic loss revolutionized

the field of psychology and made HM the most-studied individual in the history of brainresearchHenry grew up outside of Hartford Connecticut and was by all accounts an amiable youngman with above average intelligence He liked to go ice skating and to listen to mystery showson the radio which he enjoyed because he could often deduce the villain ahead of theprogram detective Then on his sixteenth birthday Henry had his first grand mal seizureduring a celebratory trip to the city with his parents After that point the paralyzing seizuresarrived with increasing frequency until by the summer of 1953 he was experiencing as manyas eleven episodes per week He was unable to hold a steady job and his prospects forindependent living seemed dim There were not many effective treatments available forepilepsy in 1953 so it was with a mixture of hope and trepidation that Henrys family turnedto Dr William Scoville and his experimental surgeryThe Day His World Stood Still - Page 2The Fateful SurgeryThe idea behind the surgery was simple Seizures as Scoville correctly reasoned are causedby uncontrolled electrical impulses that start in a localized area and then spread throughoutthe rest of the brain If one could remove the part of the brain where the seizures originated itshould be possible to cure the epilepsy Henry had the most common form of the diseasecalled temporal lobe epilepsy which meant that his seizures began in the tissue located oneither side of his brain Dr Scoville removed a large chunk of Henrys right and left temporallobes which was a crucial decision because the brain is symmetrical and thus most importantstructures are duplicated Altogether Henry lost about a fist-sized portion of his brain whichencompassed (on both sides) the hippocampus the amygdala and the entorhinal andperirhinal cortices As it turns out the hippocampus is crucial for memory storage When helost his hippocampi Henry became frozen in 1953 remembering very well the events beforehis operation but unable to create any new memories He describes the experience like thisRight now Im wondering have I done or said anything amiss You see at this momenteverything looks clear to me but what happened just before Thats what worries me Its likewaking from a dream I just dont rememberWhat Henry Can Remember And What He CannotAt the time of Henrys surgery the study of memory was mostly limited to philosophicalwritings and introspective probing like the kind practiced by Sigmund Freud In the 1930sKarl Lashley began a systematic quest to find the exact location of memory in the brain Hetaught rats and monkeys a variety of tasks then destroyed a part of their brain reasoning thatif the animals could not remember after the lesion then he must have found the place wherememories reside After years of frustration Lashley concluded that nothing short of nearcomplete destruction of the brain caused the animals to forget their tasks and it seemed thatbiological study of memory was not possibleThen word began to spread of patient HM who had very localized brain damage but extremememory deficits Scientists were very interested in the precise nature of Henrys amnesia andbegan a careful study of which parts of his memory had been erased by the surgery and whichparts remained intact As noted before he had good recall of facts learned before hisoperation meaning that his long-term memory was unharmed Also Henry was able to holdinformation in storage for very short periods of time Most people can retain about sevenpieces of information (a telephone number for example) in memory for about thirty secondsand Henry scored normally on these kinds of tasks Thus his working memory (or scratchpadmemory) seemed unaffected by the loss of his hippocampus The main problem for Henrywas converting short-term memories into permanent storage a process called consolidationBased on the patterns of Henrys memory loss researchers formed the following hypothesesabout memory formation1) Short-term memories are biologically different from long-term memories because they donot require the hippocampus for formation2) Long-term memories are stored throughout the brain but the hippocampus is necessary forthe information to reach long-term storage Once the memory is permanently stored howeverthe hippocampus is no longer required Said another way the hippocampus is important forlong-term memory formation but not for memory maintenance or retrievalThis would explain why Henry can remember the events prior to his surgery but not store anynew memories afterward Even with thousands of repetitions he is unable to learn new factsHis doctors must reintroduce themselves each morning and Henry is never sure where he is

for very long Yet even as they marvel at the extent of his memory loss researchers havefound one other kind of memory task that Henry can perform normally skill learningOften termed procedural memory skill learning is a kind of unconscious memory Youmight recall your tennis lessons very well but when you hit the ball over the net there is noconscious awareness of each muscle group involved in the task Your backhand is simplyautomatic For Henry these kinds of motor skills are also automatic He does not rememberlearning them but his performance improves over time Learning to trace a star using areflection in the mirror for example is a task that most people do not do well the first timethey try it But with practice it becomes quite easy Henry shows the same kind ofimprovement on the star-tracing task even though each time he tries it he claims to havenever attempted it before Thus skill learning appears to be a special kind of long-memorythat does not require the hippocampusHenry Right NowStudy of Henrys case has led to some very seminal findings about memory Specifically itseems that the hippocampus is required for the formation of conscious long-term memoriesbut not for unconscious long-term skill memories or short-term recall Perhaps even moreimportantly Henry has vividly illustrated that there is a biological basis for memory and thatit is possible to use biological techniques to study a subject as elusive as memoryAs for Henrys current status he lives in a nursing home in Hartford and still travelsoccasionally to MIT for memory testing He enjoys doing crossword puzzles and watchingdetective shows on television His life is peaceful if not completely happy He worries oftenthat he has done something wrong and it is not possible for him to make any real friendssince he cannot remember a person from ten minutes to the next At times he seems to have asense of humor about his condition as in the following anecdote taken from his biographyMemorys Ghost The Strange Tale of Mr M and the Nature of Memory by Philip HiltsWhen walking down the corridor at MIT with Henry Dr Suzanne Corkin made the usualkind of small talk Do you know where you are HenryHenry grinned Why of course Im at MITDr Corkin was a bit surprised How do you know thatHenry laughed He pointed to a student nearby with a large MIT emblazoned on hissweatshirt Got ya that time Henry saidMainly though he leads a life of quiet confusion never knowing exactly how old he is (heguesses maybe thirty and is always surprised by his reflection in the mirror) and reliving hisgrief over the death of his mother every time he hears about it Though he does not recall hisoperation he knows that there is something wrong with his memory and has adopted aphilosophical stance on his problems It does get me upset but I always say to myself whatis to be is to be Thats the way I always figure it nowOften Henry will express the hope that others can learn from his unfortunate situation as hetold Philip Hilts in an interview several years agoWell what I keep thinking is that possibly I had an operation And somehow the memory isgoneAnd Im trying to figure it outI think of it all the time I dont remember this and whyI dont remember thatIs that worrisome Hilts wanted to knowWell it isnt worrisome in a way to me because I know that if they ever performed anoperation on me theyd learn from it It would help othersSadly the very nature of his memory loss prevents Henry from ever knowing the incrediblecontribution he has made to the field of psychology but his tale stands as an importantprologue to the ongoing story of memory research Long after Henry passes on HM willbe studied as the man whose unwitting sacrifice first vividly illustrated the important link

between memory and brain

Langue et Affaires Anglais Lecture 1 Business organization in Britain and the USA

1 Introduction What is a business - The 3 sectors of the economy - Business strategy The purpose of this lesson is to discuss the main business organizations of britain and america Brief definition of a business and give an overview of the 3 sectors of the economy

What is a business An organized effort to produce goods or services which can be supplied to satisfy the needs and wants of customers in exchange of a reward or payment which will give the producer or supplier an adequate return on his investment There are many different types of businesses Some are small local firms others are large companies make trade internationally or nationally Some may produce or sell goods whereas others provide a service Some do both such as computer stores that offer advice and maintenance to customers Some organizations are classified as businesses even though we may not think of them in this way ( football clubs or charities ) Businesses exist for a purpose A business needs funds Finance is usually the hardest thing to obtain A business needs customers and suppliers who provide many of the inputs such as raw materials Premises ex an office or a factory Management and organization A business may also need to protect its ideas or products through patents and copyright which make it illegal for other firms to copy directly the business idea or invention or by keeping new products secret until they are ready to launch by focussing on retaining key staff A business needs to have clear objectives An objective is a target that a business sets itself Difference between long and short term targets The targets must be regularly reviewed so that the business can measure its progress There are several objectives -Survive in the market -Break-even = cover costs -High motivation amongst its employees -Maximize profits -grow in size export -diversify and sell different products -Make returns to shareholders ( actionnaires ) of limited companies

2 Types of business Introduction Public sector and private sector

A) Sole tradersB) Partnerships The general partners The sleeping partners The salaried partner C) Limited companyIntroduction Definition of a limited company - Private limited companies - Public limited companies

D) FranchisingE) Types of businesses in AmericaF) Mergeers and acquisitionsG) Groups parent companies and subsidiaries H) Multinational and conglomeratesI) Blue chips

Conclusion

Accent sur la syllabe preacuteceacutedent le _icEx dorsquorsquomestic plarsquorsquotonic lsquorsquocristicism antibi lsquorsquooticBut politique- Regravegle en _ity mots termineacutes par _ityAccent sur lrsquoanteacutepeacutenultiegraveme (3egraveme syllabe agrave partir de la fin)Ex harsquorsquobility ambi lsquorsquoguity corsquorsquommodityRegravegle du lion Regravegle en _ic Regravegle en _ityConrsquorsquovenientAnticirsquorsquopationBersquorsquohaviorSusrsquorsquopiciousStimursquorsquolationSeparsquorsquorationAutorsquorsquomaticScienrsquorsquotificallyPhilorsquorsquosophicallyCharactersquorsquoristicDyrsquorsquonamicBiorsquorsquologicallyResponsarsquorsquobilityImpossirsquorsquobilityAssirsquorsquoduityUnirsquorsquoversityPlasrsquorsquoticityCours anglais ndeg2 Alphabet phoneacutetiqueQuickTimetrade et undeacutecompresseur TIFF (non compresseacute)sont requis pour visionner cette imageLa phrase complexeIntroUne phrase complexe crsquoest lrsquointervention de plusieurs RP (relations preacutedicatives couplagesujetpreacutedicat (base verbale + compleacutement eacuteventuel))bull Diffeacuterence entre phrase complexe et phrase composeacutee- phrase simple 1 RPAdults may become dorbiful ( ) of their ability to learn a new language- Phrase composeacutee au moins 2RP juxtaposeacutes ou coordonneacutesAfter the funeral her brother appropriated their parentrsquos house and she took the carhar inhertame ( )- Phrase complexe au moins 2 RP dont une subordonneacuteeThere is a critical period for learning a record language that shuts down around theorset of puberty (cette seconde partie est deacutependante de la premiegravere car seule ellene veut rien dire)- La phrase composeacutee coordonneacutee au moins 2 RP coordonneacutes (and or but)After the funeral her brother appropriated their parentsrsquo house and she took the caras her inhertamesThey can run after the mouse and eat itAutonomie grammatical 2 propositions autonomesSolidariteacute seacutematique 2 propositions lieacutees par le sensSolidariteacute syntaxique 1 sujet 2 propositions- La phrase composeacutee juxtaposeacutee au moins 2 RP juxtaposeacutes ( - ) autonomieplus grande que 2 RP coordonneacutes1Deux points (1) he had to scrap the game safety work wat not finishP1 P2(2) What she meant was I want you to be weakP1 P2Nature de la relation entre P1 et P2 (1) justificative color means laquo because raquo P2 explique P1

(2) expansive color means laquo explanation raquo P2 reacutepond agrave lrsquoattente de P12VirguleHe offered her a seat lookek through the prints praised them and explained theyhadnrsquot the slightest chance of being publishedRelation seacutemantique eacutetroite entre les propositions = jusxtaposition de segmentsmis sur 1 mecircme plan Association entre les diffeacuterentes propositions3 Point virgule (semi-color)He was a good-looking man he was at the peak of his scholarly career he waseven feared by his colleaguesE (eacutenonciateur) regroupe les diffeacuterents aspects de la personnaliteacute de laquo he raquo creacuteationdrsquoun lien entre 3 caracteacuteristiques de He Le point virgule permet de regrouperplusieurs propositions indeacutependantes sans les dissociations (par rapport au point)Associations DissociationVirgule deux points point virgule pointLa phrase composeacuteeTags ndash les eacutenonceacutes qui englobent des questions tags sont aussi des phrases composeacutees sanscoordonnantYou like them donrsquot you P1 P2You donrsquot like them do you P1 P2Le lien entre les 2 P est un miroir inverseacute P1 annonce P2 demande confirmationStructures correacutelativesLes structures correacutelatives en laquo the morethe more raquo laquo the lessthe less raquo laquo the moretheless raquo laquo the less the more raquo supposent une binariteacute obligatoire(1) The more you scratch the more it itchesP1 P2(2) the less hear about you the better I feelP1 P2(1) augmentation correacutelative marqueacutee directement(2) progression correacutelative inversement proportionnelleANGLAIS L3 COURS Ndeg3PhonologySemanticsSyntaxPragnoticsIgnSpeechPhonemeMorpheneVocalCommunicativeSarcasticallySystemPhrase complexe proposition principale dans laquelle on a une propositionsubordonneacuteePhrase simples composeacutees complexes- IQ tests are traditionally viewed as a quantitative measure of a personrsquosintelligence = simple- Children who score very well as IQ tests are often tracked into programs for thelaquo gifted raquo while those do very poorly are traded into laquo remedial raquo programsComplexe despite their prevalence the true meaning and import of IQ tests aresubjects of some controversy in the fields of education psychology and neurosciences= simple- Over the past year the subjects of intelligence a possible biological basis forintelligence and ways to improve intelligence have all received a significant amountof media attention = simple- This article is a short review of somme of these studies = simple- There seem to be two man camps on the sbject of intelligence = complexe

- In one camp are the researchers aho not only support the concept of IQ as a measureof intelligence but also believe that there is a biological switch that govern thisintelligence such as a gene or some kind of brain chemical = relative donc complexe- These reseachers also believe that IQ and this intelligence can be improved by externalmeans such as through diefary supplements or specific learning exercices = complexe- In the second camp are the researchers who reject the concept of a single definition ofintelligence and sufffest instead that human intelligence is too complexLa phrase complexe marqueurs de subordinationConjonctions de subordination 1 Surbordonnants apparaissant seuls After (al)though as because before if once sincehellip2 Combinaison de plusieurs termes - termineacutes par that in that so that such that except that in order thathellip- termineacutes par that facultatif now (that) provided (that) supposing (that) considering(that) seeing (that)- termineacutes par as as far as as long as as soon as so long as so ashellip- termineacutes par than sooner than rather than (au lieu de )- autres as if even if if only as though in casehellip3 Conjonctions correacutelatives combinaison de deux marqueurs une conjonction dans lasubordonneacutee et un autre terme dans la proposition englobanteIf then althoughyetnevertheless ashellipso whetherhellipor morelessthan assohellipthat suchas suchhellipthat no soonerhellip than4 Autres indicateurs de subordinationMarqueurs qui ne sont pas des conjonctions de subordination mais signalent un rapport desubordination- Termes en WHa- Subordonneacutees interrogatives I wander WHO it can beb- Subordonneacutees exclamatives Irsquom surprised HOW beautiful it turned out to bec- Relatives this is the man WHO came yesterday- Relative en THAT- The man that came yesterday- The only one that is worth read- Attention THAT relatif et conjonction (he said that he would come back)- Inversion sujet-auxiliaire- propositions conditionnelles- Had I known I would never have come if I had known- Were it not for you if it were not for you- Absence de verbe conjugueacute- Thinking it was too late he decided to stay home as he thought it was too late- Absence de signe de subordination - Conjonctives he said he would not come he said thathellip- Relatives he is the man I was telling you about he is the man whom I was tellingyou aboutAnglais L3 cours ndeg4Human memoryA set of stories where to put information A set of processes that act on stories3 differents stories - this sensory information storie- the short-term store- the long-temr store3 processes- encoding- maintenance- retrieval1048766 Sensory informations store ignored or paid attention to ignored writtent overIf paid attention to encoded to short term store1048766 Short-term store a mited storage capacity submitted to decay (from 12 to 30seconds) Interference (new information displaces older information) mental rehearsal(repeat the information subvocally) elaboration rehearsal (se reacutepeacuteter le mot dans

notre tecircte)Long-term store large quantity of informations maintains informations for very long periodsof timeattentionSENSORY MEMORY WORKING MEMORY LONG TERM MEMORYencodingretrievalrehearsalInfo not attended to forgetting forgettingLong term memoryDeclarative ProceduralSemantic EpisodicLike riding a bikeYour lastbirthday partyThis target article discusses the verbal working memory system used in sentencecomprehension We review the idea of working memory as a short duration system in whichsmall amounts of information are simultaneously stored and manipulated in the service of atask and that syntactic processing in sentence comprehension requires such a storage andcomputational system We inquire whether the working memory system used in syntacticprocessing is the same as that used in verbally mediated tasks involving conscious controlledprocessing Various forms of evidence are considered the relationship between individualdifferences in working memory and individual differences in the efficiency of syntacticprocessing the effect of concurrent verbal memory load on syntactic processing andsyntactic processing in patients with poor short term memory poor working memory oraphasia The experimental results suggest that the verbal working memory system specializedfor assigning the syntactic structure of a sentence and for using that structure in determiningsentence meaning is distinct from the working memory system that underlies the use ofsentence meaning to accomplish further functions We present a theory of the components ofthe verbal working memory system and suggestions as to its neural basis(si vous voulez le texte dans son inteacutegraliteacute je lrsquoai trouveacute ici httpwwwbbsonlineorgdocumentsa00000441bbs00000441-00bbscaplanhtml)En franccedilais Cet article discutesrsquointeacuteresse au systegraveme de meacutemoire de travail utiliseacute pour la compreacutehensiondes phrases Nous passons en revue lrsquoideacutee que la meacutemoire de travail correspond agrave un systegravemede courte dureacutee ougrave une petite quantiteacute drsquoinformations est simultaneacutement stockeacutee et manipuleacuteetravailleacutee pour reacutepondre agrave une tacircche et que le traitement syntaxique de la compreacutehension dephrase srsquoappuie sur un tel systegraveme de stockageOn cherche agrave savoir si le systegraveme de meacutemoire de travail utiliseacute dans le traitement syntaxiqueest le mecircme que celui utiliseacute dans les tacircches verbales impliquant des traitements conscients etcontrocircleacutes Les reacutesultats expeacuterimentaux suggegraverent que le systegraveme de meacutemoire de travail verbalspeacutecialiseacuteattribueacute agrave la structure syntaxique drsquoune phrasehellip On preacutesente une theacuteorie descomposantes du systegraveme de meacutemoire de travail et des suggestions concernant les basesneuronalesLA PHRASE COMPLEXE- Proposition agrave verbe fini- Proposition agrave verbe non finiVerbe fini le verbe dont la terminaison varie en fonction de la personne du temps dunombre (she goes out every night)Verbe non fini teminaison est non reacuteveacutelatrice du temps ou de la personne (obstructing theforr causes delay)(rien compris )LES SUBORDONNEacuteES Agrave VERBE NON FINI1 Infinitives en TO some were forced tu work at nightElles peuvent aussi ecirctre introduites pas laquo as if to in order to so as to raquo2 Infinitives sans TO as always he tried to help her sort things outElles peuvent aussi ecirctre introduites par laquo rather than sooner than raquo3 Propositions en ING standing there she fixed him4 Proposition en ED (participe passeacute) embarrassed she changed the subject

Elles peuvent aussi ecirctre introduites par when althoughtLe verbe non fini deacuteclenche neacutecessairement une deacutependance agrave une proposition agrave verbe finiLES PROPOSITIONS Agrave VERBE FINI1 les subordonneacutees relatives jouent un rocircle de compleacutementation introduction parWH that ou rienShe is known as as processing scientist the researcher who paved the way for furtherexperiments Relative who paved the way for further experiments expansion dusyntagme normal laquo the researcher raquo2 types de relatives restrictives et non restrictives (appositives) - restrictives identification de lrsquoanteacuteceacutedent permet de creacuteer un sous groupe agrave lrsquointeacuterieurdrsquoune classe de reacutefeacuterents those who donrsquot understand can ask questions (crsquoest uneideacutee ccedila )- appositives apportent une information suppleacutementaire sans identifier lrsquoanteacuteceacutedent this paper which was written by Delaene in 1997 is the first one to assess the neuralnetwork in L2 moderate subjects preacutecision apporteacutee apregraves-coup souvent mise entreparenthegravesesType particulier which he never rang back which rather surprised me rupture inteacuterative commentaire de lrsquoeacutenonciateurCOURS 5AMNESIAAmnesia is memomy less generaly caused by a brain trauma (amnesia due to psychologicaltrauma is less well documented)- retrograde amnesia less of memory of events prior to the trauma- anterograde amnesia less of memory for events occuring after the trauma (theirability to form new memories)HM and the study of anterograde amnesia - HM had bilateral temporal lobe epilepsy- As treatment he had a bilateral medial temporal lobectomy- This cured his epilepsy but left him whith severe anterograde amnesia He has beenunable to form new long term memories since the surgeryHMrsquos anterograde amnesia - HM cannot form new memories of people or events canrsquot remember his doctorscanrsquot remember his testing sessions- HM can remember (pretty much) his lige before the surgery some mild loss for the 2years prior surgery- Normal workinf memory (7+-2)- Basically he got stuck in time when he had his surgery 1953) il est resteacute bloqueacute aumoment de son opeacuterationHowever it turns out that HMrsquos performance improves on tasks - miror drawing task trace image while looking in mirror this is hard to do HMrsquosperformance improves or this task oven though he doesnrsquot remember over havingdone it beforeBases on HMrsquoS symptoms multiple memory systems (en regardant ce qursquoil se passait pourlui on a reacuteussit agrave mettre en eacutevidence plusieurs systegravemes de meacutemoire) - explicite (deacuteclarative) memory conscious items be verbally expressed- two systems episodic (the even of our lives) semantic (information about the world the meaning of words)- Implicite (procedural) memory non conscious expressed by improved performanceor taskLA PHRASE COMPLEXE CLASSIFICATION DES SUBORDONNEacuteES2 types de comparaison 1 comparaison drsquoeacutequivalence (=) ou de non eacutequivalence (+_)John is AS gifted AS Peter (eacutequivalence)John is MORE gifted THAN Peter ( non eacutequivalence +)John is LESS gifted THAN Peter (non eacutequivalence -)2 Comparaison de suffisance (enoughso) ou drsquoexcegraves (too much)He is gifted enough to succeed (suffisance)He is too bright to fail (excegraves)

Subordonneacutes comparatives - un eacuteleacutement compareacute he is as gifted he is too bright- un eacuteleacutement de comparaison as Peterto fail= AS AS+ MORE THAN- LESS THANSuffisance ENOUGH TOExcegraves TOO TOExercices trouvez le type de subordonneacutees - Children who score very weel on IQ tests are often tracked into programs for the gifted(while those who do very poorly are tracked into remedial programs- There seem to be two main camps on the subject of intelligence (P1 verbe non fini infinitive)In one camp are the researchers who not only support the concept of IQ as ameasure of intelligence but also believe that there is a biological switch that governs thisintelligence such as a gene or some kind of brain chemical (P1rsquo relative restrictive)These researchers also believe that IQ and thus intelligence can be improved byexternal means such as through dietary supplements or specific learning exercises (P1 eten souligneacute P14 conjonctive)In the second camp are the researchers who reject the concept of a single definition ofintelligence and suggest instead that human intelligence is too complex a mesh of qualitieswhich cannot be measured by a single score on a single test These researchers alsobelieve that intelligence can be improved but only by incorporating a much widerdefinition of intelligence than is currently in place in our society (P1 et en souligneacute P14relative restricitive)instead that human intelligence is too complex a mesh of qualities which cannot bemeasured by a single score on a single test These researchers also believe that intelligencecan be improved but only by incorporating a much wider definition of intelligence than iscurrently in place in our society (P1 et en souligne P1rsquo conjonctive)but only by incorporating a much wider definition of intelligence than is currently in placein our society (P2 comparative)LA PHRASE COMPLEXE ETUDE FONCTIONNELE DESSUBORDONNEacuteESEtude fonctionnelle srsquointeacuteresse aux propositions subordonneacuteesFonctions syntaxiques sujetcompleacutementattributadverbialSujet althought acquiring the grammar of onersquos first language does seem to be subject to acritical periodComplement - compleacutement drsquoobjet direct I saw John- Compleacutement drsquoattribut I bought John a nice sweat- Compleacutement propositionnel its depends on John- Compleacutement drsquoadjectif she was busy typing a lettreAdverbial compleacutement circonstancielRenseigne sur la circonstance du procegraves lieu temps maniegraverehellipLes conjonctions ont une valeur seacutemantique propreTEMPS After before since until when while as soon as onceLIEU Where whereverCONDITIONNELLE If unless provided that so long as on condition thatCONCESSIVE Thought althought while whereas even if if whenCAUSE Because since as v-ingBUT To so as to in order to so that on order thatCONSEQUENCE So thatCOMPARAISON As if as thoughtANGLAIS L3 COURS 7 (question sur le texte de Schaffausen)a he was living on his ownb b he was paralysedc He experienced ans attack characterised by less of consciousness muscles spamsans rigiding (definition de lrsquoeacutepilepsie)According to DR Scaville epilepsy is due to a the morphological asymetry of the hemispheres

b electrical impulses located in the hippocampus areasc electrical impulses spreading throughout the whole brainThe hippocampus the amygdala and the entorhinal and perihinal cortices are situateda in the cortexb in both temporal lobesc in the brainstemHow can you explain the plural laquo hippocampi raquo in laquo when he lost his hippocampi Henrybecame frozen in 1953 raquo (le pluriel de lrsquohippocampe)Lashleyrsquos experiments carried out on animalsa fit in with the precise nature of henryrsquoa amnesiab led him to conclude that biological study of memory is impossiblec prove that rats and monkeys behave differentlyHenryrsquos amnesia due to his surgery enabled researchers ti uderstand the role of hippocampusa in short-term memoryb in long-term memoryc in procedural memoryd in long-term memory formationHM can no longera play tennisb store new pieces of informationsc remember events prior to 1753d retain about seven pieces of information for about thirty secondsHenryrsquos case allows researchers to hypothesize that the hippocampus isunnecessary for the formation of long term memoriesnecessary for unconscious long-term skill memoriesrequired for the formation of short-term memoriesrequired for consolidationToday henry likeslistening to mystery showsgoing ice-skatingwatching detective showsdoing puzzlesMemory was largely studied befoe henryrsquos operation true or falseHenryrsquos case is now confirmed by other simular cases true or falseHenry has got lany friends true or falseHe can now live on his own true or falseSCRIPT AUDIOKey word mental illness procedure ice pick lobotomy emotionOn january 17 1946 psychobiologist nomed Freeman launched a radical new era in thetratment of mental illness in the countrySCRIPT 2 si vous voulez eacutecouter le texte crsquoest lagrave httpwwwbrainconnectioncomtopicsmain=fahm-memoryHoward dullyrsquos storya How did he go to Washington by flyb where did he go in Washington GW universityc What did he want to see my filesd What did he love to do e What did he find in his file f What was he must interested by g What did he want to understand h How did was he i Who want to see Dr Freeman j What happened to Howard lsquos nother How old was he then k What about the relationships between his stepmother (megravere adoptive) and him l What did his stepmother want H Dully srsquoest fait opeacuterer par Freeman et veut comprendre ce qursquoil srsquoest passeacute il va doncchercher son dossier meacutedicalm how did Howard read when Freeman explained ti him what had happenedn What did her stepmother decide to do Why

o Can you explain the term laquo word of the stock raquo (pupille de la nation)p What questions have haunted thoward q Did Howard dare to speak to his father r What happened to his stepmother s What did Howard decide to do t What couldnrsquot howard believe Toutes les reacuteponses sont dans le texte ndeg4Voca Deserve meacuteriterPaper-route ditribution de magazines dans les boicirctes aux lettresMake it stick soyez ferme Thrust enfonceacuteQuiver freacutemirPathways route qui relie un endroit agrave un autreSever couper = out offTexte 1This target article discusses the verbal working memory system used in sentencecomprehension We review the idea of working memory as a short duration system in whichsmall amounts of information are simultaneously stored and manipulated in the service of atask and that syntactic processing in sentence comprehension requires such a storage andcomputational system We inquire whether the working memory system used in syntacticprocessing is the same as that used in verbally mediated tasks involving conscious controlledprocessing Various forms of evidence are considered the relationship between individualdifferences in working memory and individual differences in the efficiency of syntacticprocessing the effect of concurrent verbal memory load on syntactic processing andsyntactic processing in patients with poor short term memory poor working memory oraphasia The experimental results suggest that the verbal working memory system specializedfor assigning the syntactic structure of a sentence and for using that structure in determiningsentence meaning is distinct from the working memory system that underlies the use ofsentence meaning to accomplish further functions We present a theory of the components ofthe verbal working memory system and suggestions as to its neural basis

Texte 2IQ tests are traditionally viewed as a quantitative measure of a persons intelligenceChildren who score very well on IQ tests are often tracked into programs for the giftedwhile those who do very poorly are tracked into remedial programs Despite theirprevalence the true meaning and import of IQ tests are subjects of some controversy in thefields of education psychology and neuroscienceOver the past year the subjects of intelligence a possible biological basis for intelligence andways to improve intelligence have all received a significant amount of media attention Thisarticle is a short review of some of these studiesThere seem to be two main camps on the subject of intelligence In one camp are theresearchers who not only support the concept of IQ as a measure of intelligence but alsobelieve that there is a biological switch that governs this intelligence such as a gene or somekind of brain chemical These researchers also believe that IQ and thus intelligence can beimproved by external means such as through dietary supplements or specific learningexercisesIn the second camp are the researchers who reject the concept of a single definition ofintelligence and suggest instead that human intelligence is too complex a mesh of qualitieswhich cannot be measured by a single score on a single test These researchers also believethat intelligence can be improved but only by incorporating a much wider definition ofintelligence than is currently in place in our societyLets start with some of the studies that fall into the first camp of opinion on IQ as a measureof intelligenceIn July 1999 researchers at the University of New Mexico announced a study linking levelsof two brain chemicals to performance on IQ testsWilliam Brooks and his colleagues used brain-imaging techniques to measure levels ofcholine and N-acetylasparate (NAA) in the brains of 26 healthy volunteersThe researchers found that people with low levels of choline and high levels of NAA tended

to have the higher scores on IQ tests The researchers suggested that a manipulation of thelevels of these brain chemicals such as with dietary supplements could increase IQ scoresMethods for increasing IQ scores abound in the press and are also the focus of a number ofacademic articlesThe well discussed and much publicized Mozart effect stems from a Wisconsin study thatsuggests that listening to Mozart boosts IQ Although a number of later studies suggest thatthe effect may not be as powerful as originally thought many preschools have institutedprograms such as Mozart hour to give their students the musics perceived benefitsPopular dietary supplements such as gingko biloba and phosphatidylserine are advertised asbrain enhancement products that improve mental functions such as problem solving andmemory although there is very little scientific evidence to support these claims There is evena firm out of Beverly Hills that offers a product called Brain Gum Their promise for theproduct is encapsulated in their phone number 1-888 IQ BOOSTIn the field of child development Linda Acredolo a psychology professor at the University ofCalifornia Davis has found that babies who are taught sign language starting at the age of 11months tend to have higher average IQs when they reach second grade than their peers whowere not taught sign language (scores were 114 for the sign language proficient 102 for thenon-signers)Behavioral experimentation on mice is a traditional tool for the study of gene manipulation onintelligence Last September researchers at Princeton reported that genetically engineeredmice that over-express a particular form of the brain protein called the NMDA receptorperform better at a number of behavioral tasks than normal mice The researchers suggest thatthis receptor could be a target for treating learning and memory disorders-this creation of amouse that performs well on memory tasks has been described as a possible first step inmaking human beings smarterOne question should be considered Does performance on IQ tests really tell us somethingconcrete about a persons intelligence This leads us to the second camp of researchers-thosewho argue that traditional IQ tests do not tell the whole storyHoward Gardner a professor of education at Harvard University proposes the theory ofmultiple intelligences in which there are at least eight different types of intelligence all ofwhich must be taken into account when establishing a vision of a persons abilities andpotentialMichael Howe a psychology professor at Exeter University has spent ten years studying thedevelopment of high achievers such as Mozart Michael Faraday and Isaac Newton In hisbook Genius Explained Howe argues that most geniuses dont have some ineffable qualitythat promotes their intelligence above that of the general population He argues that whatdistinguished these admittedly remarkable people was incredible persistence and devotion totheir particular field of interest Howe believes that sheer intelligence as measured by an IQtest wont automatically lead to success without the added qualities of determination andperseveranceAnother researcher Dr Ken Richardson also argues that the idea of an IQ score is too strictof a limit on the definition of intelligence In his book The Making of Intelligence he suggeststhat the idea of a single cause or kind of intelligence is not supported by our ever-increasingunderstanding of the mind and its functions His main idea is that intelligence is not a staticthing that is coded for us by our genes but is instead a result of a dynamic interaction betweenthe mental process with which we represent the world and the culture in which we liveAccording to Dr Richardson society has as much an influence on our intelligence as do ourgenesThomas Edisons famous definition of genius as 99 perspiration and 1 inspiration suggeststhat intelligence is as much a product of nurture as it is of nature However it is the questionof the origin of that mysterious 1 that fuels much of the interest in IQ scores memoryenhancing drugs and mind-boosting music Research results from the smart mouse andfrom the New Mexico study on brain chemical levels suggest that there may in fact be abiological quality be it gene or chemical that is the seat of that extra brain power that detailsthe difference between smart and not-smart gifted and remedial Researchers likeGardner and Richardson argue instead that the brain is too plastic and complex forintelligence to be limited by the actions of a single gene chemical or concept of IQAll of this intriguing research tells us that just as in so many areas of science more time andstudy is necessary before we can hope to find a clear answer In the end the final answer to

the question of intelligence will most likely be a multi-layered vision of human potential thatcombines all of these studies in biology psychology and cultural contextTexte 3Is There a Critical Period for Learning a Foreign LanguageJune 2000by Lisa ChipongianThe Myth of Missed OpportunitiesA popular misconception regarding second-language learning is that there is a window orcritical period for learning a second language that shuts down around the onset of puberty Inhis article Is There a Child Advantage in Learning Foreign Languages Brad Marshallpoints out the harm this misconception can cause Adults may become doubtful of their abilityto learn a new language Their teachers may become skeptical too tending to plod throughtheir classes feeling there is little hope of success When it comes to learning a foreignlanguage many believe that the adult brain is in a state of shutdown relative to the childsneurological state of readinessEarly Foreign Language Instruction is Not a Magical ToolIn The Age Factor in Second Language Acquisition David Singleton concedes that in secondlanguageinstruction younger = better in the long run But this is a general rule with plentyof exceptions The exceptions include the 5 percent of adult bilinguals who master a secondlanguage even though they begin learning it when they are well into adulthood long after anycritical period has presumably come to a closeBoth research and the informal observations of those who are in daily contact with secondlanguagelearners suggest that an early start in a second language is neither a strictlynecessary nor a universally sufficient condition for the attainment of native-like proficiencyGiven the enormous variation in peoples experience of second languagesmdasheven (orespecially) in the classroommdashthis ought to be a truismAs John T Bruer author of The Myth of the First Three Years states One of the dangers oftheemphasis on critical periods is that it prompts us to pay too much attention to whenlearning occurs and too little attention to how learning might best occur Marshall agreespointing out that learning a foreign language in elementary schoolmdashwhat most researchersgenerally agree is the ideal timemdashis not a magical tool for creating perfect second-languagespeakers Timing in other words is not everythingMany assume that critical learning periods apply not only to second-language learning but toother school subjects like math and reading Such beliefs writes Bruer have raised needlessconcerns among educators For instance once a critical period is over is lost academicground irrecoverable Such concerns arise from a simplistic and over-generalized applicationof critical periods to learning The extreme view that children must learn a foreign languageearly or not at all grows out of popular images of critical periods as closing abruptly likewindows slamming shutIs There a Critical Period for Learning a Foreign Language - Page 2Foreign-Language Learning and Critical PeriodsThe question of whether or not there is a critical period for learning a foreign language is noteasily answered But there is certainly no specific age at which the window of opportunitycloses completely As with the visual system the language system consists of several featuresand is not as Singleton writes a monolith Certain features of the language system may bemore related to distinct critical periods than others According to Ellen Bialystok and KenjiHakuta authors of In Other Words The controversy over the optimal age for learning asecond language really hinges on the acquisition of a subset of possible linguistic features andfunctionsThe Grammar-Learning Window Never Completely ClosesAlthough acquiring the grammar of ones first language does seem to be subject to a criticalperiod which ends around puberty the issue of whether or not there is also a critical period forsecond-language grammar acquisition is more complex In The Myth of the First Three YearsBruer does not state that there is a critical period for second-language grammar learninginstead he claims that there may be some maturational constraints on second-languagegrammar learningBialystok and Hakuta complicate the response to whether or not there is an optimal age forsecond-language grammar acquisition even further They point out that learning somelinguistic features like tense seems to be affected by age yet other linguistic structures like

word order are resistant to any effect of the learners age In their book In Other WordsBialystok and Hakuta state that syntax remains accessible throughout life even though thecircumstances of our lives may muddy that access Overall the amazing human ability tolearn grammar they argue remains with us as long as we remain humanPhonological Acquisition Is Age-SensitiveUnlike grammar learning second-language phonological acquisition is subject to a sensitiveperiod The decline in unaccented learning of a foreign language is progressive howeverand not characterized by a predictably abrupt change According to a study by James Flegesimilar and not entirely novel sounds are the ones that are affected by age In other wordsnew sounds are easier to pronounce with native-like accuracy than sounds that are similar butnot identical to those found in ones first languageAccording to Bruer we know almost nothing about the stages within the critical period forphonological learning We do know Bruer continues that the system remains plastic andable to tune itself to a second phonologyuntil early in the second decade of lifeVocabulary Learning Has No Critical PeriodOf vocabulary acquisition in ones first language Singleton writes there is no point at whichvocabulary acquisition can be predicted to cease There is also Singleton suggests nocritical period for learning vocabulary in a second languageAccording to the results of a study by Helen Neville using brain recordings semanticinformation seems to be processed in the same way by both speakers of English as a secondlanguage and native English speakers throughout life In The Myth of the First Three YearsBruer relates this consistency in how we acquire vocabulary throughout life to brainmaturation how we process vocabulary does not change with brain maturation as one wouldexpect it would if it were a form of time-limited experience-expectant learning It seemsinstead that the neural circuitry we need to process semantic information and learn vocabularycomes on-line early in development and does not change as we matureConclusion Younger = Better in the Long RunIt may be that the image of a window slamming shut as an analogy for the effect of age onones ability to acquire a foreign language should be replaced by Bruers analogy of areservoir that gradually evaporates This analogy suggests a progressive rather than abruptdecline in ability over time Regarding critical periods in second-language acquisitionBialystok and Hakuta suggest that the difference between child and adult learners is morequantitative (or a matter of degree) than qualitative Overallthe evidence of a critical periodfor acquiring a second language is at best confusing Although the evidence argueBialystok and Hakuta indicates that the learning process is the same for both adults andchildren and that second-language learning is not necessarily subject to biological criticalperiods they do state that on average there is a continuous decline in ability with ageOlder beginners often show an initial advantage over younger beginners in learning a newlanguage however over time the younger beginners usually overtake the older beginnersThere seems then to be according to Bialystok and Hakuta a tortoise-and-the-hare effector as Singleton has put it younger = better in the long run For this reason we should by nomeans discount the importance of learning a second language early As Bruer states Thebrain and early childhood literature is correct to emphasize that second-language learning isincreasingly important and that often American schools provide too little language instructiontoo lateWhat should be questioned or re-evaluated are the underlying assumptions that side-step theissue of how best to teach foreign languages The age at which one first encounters a secondlanguage explains Singleton is only one of the many determinants of the ultimate level ofproficiency attained in that language We must not neglect other considerations includingwhat neuroscience is now telling us about how second languages might best be taught andlearnedTexte 4The Day His World Stood Stillby Joanna SchaffhausenWhen twenty-seven year old Henry M entered the hospital in 1953 for radical brain surgerythat was supposed to cure his epilepsy he was hopeful that the procedure would change hislife for the better Instead it trapped him in a mental time warp where TV is always a newinvention and Truman is forever president The removal of large sections of his temporallobes left Henry unable to form any new personal memories but his tragic loss revolutionized

the field of psychology and made HM the most-studied individual in the history of brainresearchHenry grew up outside of Hartford Connecticut and was by all accounts an amiable youngman with above average intelligence He liked to go ice skating and to listen to mystery showson the radio which he enjoyed because he could often deduce the villain ahead of theprogram detective Then on his sixteenth birthday Henry had his first grand mal seizureduring a celebratory trip to the city with his parents After that point the paralyzing seizuresarrived with increasing frequency until by the summer of 1953 he was experiencing as manyas eleven episodes per week He was unable to hold a steady job and his prospects forindependent living seemed dim There were not many effective treatments available forepilepsy in 1953 so it was with a mixture of hope and trepidation that Henrys family turnedto Dr William Scoville and his experimental surgeryThe Day His World Stood Still - Page 2The Fateful SurgeryThe idea behind the surgery was simple Seizures as Scoville correctly reasoned are causedby uncontrolled electrical impulses that start in a localized area and then spread throughoutthe rest of the brain If one could remove the part of the brain where the seizures originated itshould be possible to cure the epilepsy Henry had the most common form of the diseasecalled temporal lobe epilepsy which meant that his seizures began in the tissue located oneither side of his brain Dr Scoville removed a large chunk of Henrys right and left temporallobes which was a crucial decision because the brain is symmetrical and thus most importantstructures are duplicated Altogether Henry lost about a fist-sized portion of his brain whichencompassed (on both sides) the hippocampus the amygdala and the entorhinal andperirhinal cortices As it turns out the hippocampus is crucial for memory storage When helost his hippocampi Henry became frozen in 1953 remembering very well the events beforehis operation but unable to create any new memories He describes the experience like thisRight now Im wondering have I done or said anything amiss You see at this momenteverything looks clear to me but what happened just before Thats what worries me Its likewaking from a dream I just dont rememberWhat Henry Can Remember And What He CannotAt the time of Henrys surgery the study of memory was mostly limited to philosophicalwritings and introspective probing like the kind practiced by Sigmund Freud In the 1930sKarl Lashley began a systematic quest to find the exact location of memory in the brain Hetaught rats and monkeys a variety of tasks then destroyed a part of their brain reasoning thatif the animals could not remember after the lesion then he must have found the place wherememories reside After years of frustration Lashley concluded that nothing short of nearcomplete destruction of the brain caused the animals to forget their tasks and it seemed thatbiological study of memory was not possibleThen word began to spread of patient HM who had very localized brain damage but extremememory deficits Scientists were very interested in the precise nature of Henrys amnesia andbegan a careful study of which parts of his memory had been erased by the surgery and whichparts remained intact As noted before he had good recall of facts learned before hisoperation meaning that his long-term memory was unharmed Also Henry was able to holdinformation in storage for very short periods of time Most people can retain about sevenpieces of information (a telephone number for example) in memory for about thirty secondsand Henry scored normally on these kinds of tasks Thus his working memory (or scratchpadmemory) seemed unaffected by the loss of his hippocampus The main problem for Henrywas converting short-term memories into permanent storage a process called consolidationBased on the patterns of Henrys memory loss researchers formed the following hypothesesabout memory formation1) Short-term memories are biologically different from long-term memories because they donot require the hippocampus for formation2) Long-term memories are stored throughout the brain but the hippocampus is necessary forthe information to reach long-term storage Once the memory is permanently stored howeverthe hippocampus is no longer required Said another way the hippocampus is important forlong-term memory formation but not for memory maintenance or retrievalThis would explain why Henry can remember the events prior to his surgery but not store anynew memories afterward Even with thousands of repetitions he is unable to learn new factsHis doctors must reintroduce themselves each morning and Henry is never sure where he is

for very long Yet even as they marvel at the extent of his memory loss researchers havefound one other kind of memory task that Henry can perform normally skill learningOften termed procedural memory skill learning is a kind of unconscious memory Youmight recall your tennis lessons very well but when you hit the ball over the net there is noconscious awareness of each muscle group involved in the task Your backhand is simplyautomatic For Henry these kinds of motor skills are also automatic He does not rememberlearning them but his performance improves over time Learning to trace a star using areflection in the mirror for example is a task that most people do not do well the first timethey try it But with practice it becomes quite easy Henry shows the same kind ofimprovement on the star-tracing task even though each time he tries it he claims to havenever attempted it before Thus skill learning appears to be a special kind of long-memorythat does not require the hippocampusHenry Right NowStudy of Henrys case has led to some very seminal findings about memory Specifically itseems that the hippocampus is required for the formation of conscious long-term memoriesbut not for unconscious long-term skill memories or short-term recall Perhaps even moreimportantly Henry has vividly illustrated that there is a biological basis for memory and thatit is possible to use biological techniques to study a subject as elusive as memoryAs for Henrys current status he lives in a nursing home in Hartford and still travelsoccasionally to MIT for memory testing He enjoys doing crossword puzzles and watchingdetective shows on television His life is peaceful if not completely happy He worries oftenthat he has done something wrong and it is not possible for him to make any real friendssince he cannot remember a person from ten minutes to the next At times he seems to have asense of humor about his condition as in the following anecdote taken from his biographyMemorys Ghost The Strange Tale of Mr M and the Nature of Memory by Philip HiltsWhen walking down the corridor at MIT with Henry Dr Suzanne Corkin made the usualkind of small talk Do you know where you are HenryHenry grinned Why of course Im at MITDr Corkin was a bit surprised How do you know thatHenry laughed He pointed to a student nearby with a large MIT emblazoned on hissweatshirt Got ya that time Henry saidMainly though he leads a life of quiet confusion never knowing exactly how old he is (heguesses maybe thirty and is always surprised by his reflection in the mirror) and reliving hisgrief over the death of his mother every time he hears about it Though he does not recall hisoperation he knows that there is something wrong with his memory and has adopted aphilosophical stance on his problems It does get me upset but I always say to myself whatis to be is to be Thats the way I always figure it nowOften Henry will express the hope that others can learn from his unfortunate situation as hetold Philip Hilts in an interview several years agoWell what I keep thinking is that possibly I had an operation And somehow the memory isgoneAnd Im trying to figure it outI think of it all the time I dont remember this and whyI dont remember thatIs that worrisome Hilts wanted to knowWell it isnt worrisome in a way to me because I know that if they ever performed anoperation on me theyd learn from it It would help othersSadly the very nature of his memory loss prevents Henry from ever knowing the incrediblecontribution he has made to the field of psychology but his tale stands as an importantprologue to the ongoing story of memory research Long after Henry passes on HM willbe studied as the man whose unwitting sacrifice first vividly illustrated the important link

between memory and brain

Langue et Affaires Anglais Lecture 1 Business organization in Britain and the USA

1 Introduction What is a business - The 3 sectors of the economy - Business strategy The purpose of this lesson is to discuss the main business organizations of britain and america Brief definition of a business and give an overview of the 3 sectors of the economy

What is a business An organized effort to produce goods or services which can be supplied to satisfy the needs and wants of customers in exchange of a reward or payment which will give the producer or supplier an adequate return on his investment There are many different types of businesses Some are small local firms others are large companies make trade internationally or nationally Some may produce or sell goods whereas others provide a service Some do both such as computer stores that offer advice and maintenance to customers Some organizations are classified as businesses even though we may not think of them in this way ( football clubs or charities ) Businesses exist for a purpose A business needs funds Finance is usually the hardest thing to obtain A business needs customers and suppliers who provide many of the inputs such as raw materials Premises ex an office or a factory Management and organization A business may also need to protect its ideas or products through patents and copyright which make it illegal for other firms to copy directly the business idea or invention or by keeping new products secret until they are ready to launch by focussing on retaining key staff A business needs to have clear objectives An objective is a target that a business sets itself Difference between long and short term targets The targets must be regularly reviewed so that the business can measure its progress There are several objectives -Survive in the market -Break-even = cover costs -High motivation amongst its employees -Maximize profits -grow in size export -diversify and sell different products -Make returns to shareholders ( actionnaires ) of limited companies

2 Types of business Introduction Public sector and private sector

A) Sole tradersB) Partnerships The general partners The sleeping partners The salaried partner C) Limited companyIntroduction Definition of a limited company - Private limited companies - Public limited companies

D) FranchisingE) Types of businesses in AmericaF) Mergeers and acquisitionsG) Groups parent companies and subsidiaries H) Multinational and conglomeratesI) Blue chips

Conclusion

(2) expansive color means laquo explanation raquo P2 reacutepond agrave lrsquoattente de P12VirguleHe offered her a seat lookek through the prints praised them and explained theyhadnrsquot the slightest chance of being publishedRelation seacutemantique eacutetroite entre les propositions = jusxtaposition de segmentsmis sur 1 mecircme plan Association entre les diffeacuterentes propositions3 Point virgule (semi-color)He was a good-looking man he was at the peak of his scholarly career he waseven feared by his colleaguesE (eacutenonciateur) regroupe les diffeacuterents aspects de la personnaliteacute de laquo he raquo creacuteationdrsquoun lien entre 3 caracteacuteristiques de He Le point virgule permet de regrouperplusieurs propositions indeacutependantes sans les dissociations (par rapport au point)Associations DissociationVirgule deux points point virgule pointLa phrase composeacuteeTags ndash les eacutenonceacutes qui englobent des questions tags sont aussi des phrases composeacutees sanscoordonnantYou like them donrsquot you P1 P2You donrsquot like them do you P1 P2Le lien entre les 2 P est un miroir inverseacute P1 annonce P2 demande confirmationStructures correacutelativesLes structures correacutelatives en laquo the morethe more raquo laquo the lessthe less raquo laquo the moretheless raquo laquo the less the more raquo supposent une binariteacute obligatoire(1) The more you scratch the more it itchesP1 P2(2) the less hear about you the better I feelP1 P2(1) augmentation correacutelative marqueacutee directement(2) progression correacutelative inversement proportionnelleANGLAIS L3 COURS Ndeg3PhonologySemanticsSyntaxPragnoticsIgnSpeechPhonemeMorpheneVocalCommunicativeSarcasticallySystemPhrase complexe proposition principale dans laquelle on a une propositionsubordonneacuteePhrase simples composeacutees complexes- IQ tests are traditionally viewed as a quantitative measure of a personrsquosintelligence = simple- Children who score very well as IQ tests are often tracked into programs for thelaquo gifted raquo while those do very poorly are traded into laquo remedial raquo programsComplexe despite their prevalence the true meaning and import of IQ tests aresubjects of some controversy in the fields of education psychology and neurosciences= simple- Over the past year the subjects of intelligence a possible biological basis forintelligence and ways to improve intelligence have all received a significant amountof media attention = simple- This article is a short review of somme of these studies = simple- There seem to be two man camps on the sbject of intelligence = complexe

- In one camp are the researchers aho not only support the concept of IQ as a measureof intelligence but also believe that there is a biological switch that govern thisintelligence such as a gene or some kind of brain chemical = relative donc complexe- These reseachers also believe that IQ and this intelligence can be improved by externalmeans such as through diefary supplements or specific learning exercices = complexe- In the second camp are the researchers who reject the concept of a single definition ofintelligence and sufffest instead that human intelligence is too complexLa phrase complexe marqueurs de subordinationConjonctions de subordination 1 Surbordonnants apparaissant seuls After (al)though as because before if once sincehellip2 Combinaison de plusieurs termes - termineacutes par that in that so that such that except that in order thathellip- termineacutes par that facultatif now (that) provided (that) supposing (that) considering(that) seeing (that)- termineacutes par as as far as as long as as soon as so long as so ashellip- termineacutes par than sooner than rather than (au lieu de )- autres as if even if if only as though in casehellip3 Conjonctions correacutelatives combinaison de deux marqueurs une conjonction dans lasubordonneacutee et un autre terme dans la proposition englobanteIf then althoughyetnevertheless ashellipso whetherhellipor morelessthan assohellipthat suchas suchhellipthat no soonerhellip than4 Autres indicateurs de subordinationMarqueurs qui ne sont pas des conjonctions de subordination mais signalent un rapport desubordination- Termes en WHa- Subordonneacutees interrogatives I wander WHO it can beb- Subordonneacutees exclamatives Irsquom surprised HOW beautiful it turned out to bec- Relatives this is the man WHO came yesterday- Relative en THAT- The man that came yesterday- The only one that is worth read- Attention THAT relatif et conjonction (he said that he would come back)- Inversion sujet-auxiliaire- propositions conditionnelles- Had I known I would never have come if I had known- Were it not for you if it were not for you- Absence de verbe conjugueacute- Thinking it was too late he decided to stay home as he thought it was too late- Absence de signe de subordination - Conjonctives he said he would not come he said thathellip- Relatives he is the man I was telling you about he is the man whom I was tellingyou aboutAnglais L3 cours ndeg4Human memoryA set of stories where to put information A set of processes that act on stories3 differents stories - this sensory information storie- the short-term store- the long-temr store3 processes- encoding- maintenance- retrieval1048766 Sensory informations store ignored or paid attention to ignored writtent overIf paid attention to encoded to short term store1048766 Short-term store a mited storage capacity submitted to decay (from 12 to 30seconds) Interference (new information displaces older information) mental rehearsal(repeat the information subvocally) elaboration rehearsal (se reacutepeacuteter le mot dans

notre tecircte)Long-term store large quantity of informations maintains informations for very long periodsof timeattentionSENSORY MEMORY WORKING MEMORY LONG TERM MEMORYencodingretrievalrehearsalInfo not attended to forgetting forgettingLong term memoryDeclarative ProceduralSemantic EpisodicLike riding a bikeYour lastbirthday partyThis target article discusses the verbal working memory system used in sentencecomprehension We review the idea of working memory as a short duration system in whichsmall amounts of information are simultaneously stored and manipulated in the service of atask and that syntactic processing in sentence comprehension requires such a storage andcomputational system We inquire whether the working memory system used in syntacticprocessing is the same as that used in verbally mediated tasks involving conscious controlledprocessing Various forms of evidence are considered the relationship between individualdifferences in working memory and individual differences in the efficiency of syntacticprocessing the effect of concurrent verbal memory load on syntactic processing andsyntactic processing in patients with poor short term memory poor working memory oraphasia The experimental results suggest that the verbal working memory system specializedfor assigning the syntactic structure of a sentence and for using that structure in determiningsentence meaning is distinct from the working memory system that underlies the use ofsentence meaning to accomplish further functions We present a theory of the components ofthe verbal working memory system and suggestions as to its neural basis(si vous voulez le texte dans son inteacutegraliteacute je lrsquoai trouveacute ici httpwwwbbsonlineorgdocumentsa00000441bbs00000441-00bbscaplanhtml)En franccedilais Cet article discutesrsquointeacuteresse au systegraveme de meacutemoire de travail utiliseacute pour la compreacutehensiondes phrases Nous passons en revue lrsquoideacutee que la meacutemoire de travail correspond agrave un systegravemede courte dureacutee ougrave une petite quantiteacute drsquoinformations est simultaneacutement stockeacutee et manipuleacuteetravailleacutee pour reacutepondre agrave une tacircche et que le traitement syntaxique de la compreacutehension dephrase srsquoappuie sur un tel systegraveme de stockageOn cherche agrave savoir si le systegraveme de meacutemoire de travail utiliseacute dans le traitement syntaxiqueest le mecircme que celui utiliseacute dans les tacircches verbales impliquant des traitements conscients etcontrocircleacutes Les reacutesultats expeacuterimentaux suggegraverent que le systegraveme de meacutemoire de travail verbalspeacutecialiseacuteattribueacute agrave la structure syntaxique drsquoune phrasehellip On preacutesente une theacuteorie descomposantes du systegraveme de meacutemoire de travail et des suggestions concernant les basesneuronalesLA PHRASE COMPLEXE- Proposition agrave verbe fini- Proposition agrave verbe non finiVerbe fini le verbe dont la terminaison varie en fonction de la personne du temps dunombre (she goes out every night)Verbe non fini teminaison est non reacuteveacutelatrice du temps ou de la personne (obstructing theforr causes delay)(rien compris )LES SUBORDONNEacuteES Agrave VERBE NON FINI1 Infinitives en TO some were forced tu work at nightElles peuvent aussi ecirctre introduites pas laquo as if to in order to so as to raquo2 Infinitives sans TO as always he tried to help her sort things outElles peuvent aussi ecirctre introduites par laquo rather than sooner than raquo3 Propositions en ING standing there she fixed him4 Proposition en ED (participe passeacute) embarrassed she changed the subject

Elles peuvent aussi ecirctre introduites par when althoughtLe verbe non fini deacuteclenche neacutecessairement une deacutependance agrave une proposition agrave verbe finiLES PROPOSITIONS Agrave VERBE FINI1 les subordonneacutees relatives jouent un rocircle de compleacutementation introduction parWH that ou rienShe is known as as processing scientist the researcher who paved the way for furtherexperiments Relative who paved the way for further experiments expansion dusyntagme normal laquo the researcher raquo2 types de relatives restrictives et non restrictives (appositives) - restrictives identification de lrsquoanteacuteceacutedent permet de creacuteer un sous groupe agrave lrsquointeacuterieurdrsquoune classe de reacutefeacuterents those who donrsquot understand can ask questions (crsquoest uneideacutee ccedila )- appositives apportent une information suppleacutementaire sans identifier lrsquoanteacuteceacutedent this paper which was written by Delaene in 1997 is the first one to assess the neuralnetwork in L2 moderate subjects preacutecision apporteacutee apregraves-coup souvent mise entreparenthegravesesType particulier which he never rang back which rather surprised me rupture inteacuterative commentaire de lrsquoeacutenonciateurCOURS 5AMNESIAAmnesia is memomy less generaly caused by a brain trauma (amnesia due to psychologicaltrauma is less well documented)- retrograde amnesia less of memory of events prior to the trauma- anterograde amnesia less of memory for events occuring after the trauma (theirability to form new memories)HM and the study of anterograde amnesia - HM had bilateral temporal lobe epilepsy- As treatment he had a bilateral medial temporal lobectomy- This cured his epilepsy but left him whith severe anterograde amnesia He has beenunable to form new long term memories since the surgeryHMrsquos anterograde amnesia - HM cannot form new memories of people or events canrsquot remember his doctorscanrsquot remember his testing sessions- HM can remember (pretty much) his lige before the surgery some mild loss for the 2years prior surgery- Normal workinf memory (7+-2)- Basically he got stuck in time when he had his surgery 1953) il est resteacute bloqueacute aumoment de son opeacuterationHowever it turns out that HMrsquos performance improves on tasks - miror drawing task trace image while looking in mirror this is hard to do HMrsquosperformance improves or this task oven though he doesnrsquot remember over havingdone it beforeBases on HMrsquoS symptoms multiple memory systems (en regardant ce qursquoil se passait pourlui on a reacuteussit agrave mettre en eacutevidence plusieurs systegravemes de meacutemoire) - explicite (deacuteclarative) memory conscious items be verbally expressed- two systems episodic (the even of our lives) semantic (information about the world the meaning of words)- Implicite (procedural) memory non conscious expressed by improved performanceor taskLA PHRASE COMPLEXE CLASSIFICATION DES SUBORDONNEacuteES2 types de comparaison 1 comparaison drsquoeacutequivalence (=) ou de non eacutequivalence (+_)John is AS gifted AS Peter (eacutequivalence)John is MORE gifted THAN Peter ( non eacutequivalence +)John is LESS gifted THAN Peter (non eacutequivalence -)2 Comparaison de suffisance (enoughso) ou drsquoexcegraves (too much)He is gifted enough to succeed (suffisance)He is too bright to fail (excegraves)

Subordonneacutes comparatives - un eacuteleacutement compareacute he is as gifted he is too bright- un eacuteleacutement de comparaison as Peterto fail= AS AS+ MORE THAN- LESS THANSuffisance ENOUGH TOExcegraves TOO TOExercices trouvez le type de subordonneacutees - Children who score very weel on IQ tests are often tracked into programs for the gifted(while those who do very poorly are tracked into remedial programs- There seem to be two main camps on the subject of intelligence (P1 verbe non fini infinitive)In one camp are the researchers who not only support the concept of IQ as ameasure of intelligence but also believe that there is a biological switch that governs thisintelligence such as a gene or some kind of brain chemical (P1rsquo relative restrictive)These researchers also believe that IQ and thus intelligence can be improved byexternal means such as through dietary supplements or specific learning exercises (P1 eten souligneacute P14 conjonctive)In the second camp are the researchers who reject the concept of a single definition ofintelligence and suggest instead that human intelligence is too complex a mesh of qualitieswhich cannot be measured by a single score on a single test These researchers alsobelieve that intelligence can be improved but only by incorporating a much widerdefinition of intelligence than is currently in place in our society (P1 et en souligneacute P14relative restricitive)instead that human intelligence is too complex a mesh of qualities which cannot bemeasured by a single score on a single test These researchers also believe that intelligencecan be improved but only by incorporating a much wider definition of intelligence than iscurrently in place in our society (P1 et en souligne P1rsquo conjonctive)but only by incorporating a much wider definition of intelligence than is currently in placein our society (P2 comparative)LA PHRASE COMPLEXE ETUDE FONCTIONNELE DESSUBORDONNEacuteESEtude fonctionnelle srsquointeacuteresse aux propositions subordonneacuteesFonctions syntaxiques sujetcompleacutementattributadverbialSujet althought acquiring the grammar of onersquos first language does seem to be subject to acritical periodComplement - compleacutement drsquoobjet direct I saw John- Compleacutement drsquoattribut I bought John a nice sweat- Compleacutement propositionnel its depends on John- Compleacutement drsquoadjectif she was busy typing a lettreAdverbial compleacutement circonstancielRenseigne sur la circonstance du procegraves lieu temps maniegraverehellipLes conjonctions ont une valeur seacutemantique propreTEMPS After before since until when while as soon as onceLIEU Where whereverCONDITIONNELLE If unless provided that so long as on condition thatCONCESSIVE Thought althought while whereas even if if whenCAUSE Because since as v-ingBUT To so as to in order to so that on order thatCONSEQUENCE So thatCOMPARAISON As if as thoughtANGLAIS L3 COURS 7 (question sur le texte de Schaffausen)a he was living on his ownb b he was paralysedc He experienced ans attack characterised by less of consciousness muscles spamsans rigiding (definition de lrsquoeacutepilepsie)According to DR Scaville epilepsy is due to a the morphological asymetry of the hemispheres

b electrical impulses located in the hippocampus areasc electrical impulses spreading throughout the whole brainThe hippocampus the amygdala and the entorhinal and perihinal cortices are situateda in the cortexb in both temporal lobesc in the brainstemHow can you explain the plural laquo hippocampi raquo in laquo when he lost his hippocampi Henrybecame frozen in 1953 raquo (le pluriel de lrsquohippocampe)Lashleyrsquos experiments carried out on animalsa fit in with the precise nature of henryrsquoa amnesiab led him to conclude that biological study of memory is impossiblec prove that rats and monkeys behave differentlyHenryrsquos amnesia due to his surgery enabled researchers ti uderstand the role of hippocampusa in short-term memoryb in long-term memoryc in procedural memoryd in long-term memory formationHM can no longera play tennisb store new pieces of informationsc remember events prior to 1753d retain about seven pieces of information for about thirty secondsHenryrsquos case allows researchers to hypothesize that the hippocampus isunnecessary for the formation of long term memoriesnecessary for unconscious long-term skill memoriesrequired for the formation of short-term memoriesrequired for consolidationToday henry likeslistening to mystery showsgoing ice-skatingwatching detective showsdoing puzzlesMemory was largely studied befoe henryrsquos operation true or falseHenryrsquos case is now confirmed by other simular cases true or falseHenry has got lany friends true or falseHe can now live on his own true or falseSCRIPT AUDIOKey word mental illness procedure ice pick lobotomy emotionOn january 17 1946 psychobiologist nomed Freeman launched a radical new era in thetratment of mental illness in the countrySCRIPT 2 si vous voulez eacutecouter le texte crsquoest lagrave httpwwwbrainconnectioncomtopicsmain=fahm-memoryHoward dullyrsquos storya How did he go to Washington by flyb where did he go in Washington GW universityc What did he want to see my filesd What did he love to do e What did he find in his file f What was he must interested by g What did he want to understand h How did was he i Who want to see Dr Freeman j What happened to Howard lsquos nother How old was he then k What about the relationships between his stepmother (megravere adoptive) and him l What did his stepmother want H Dully srsquoest fait opeacuterer par Freeman et veut comprendre ce qursquoil srsquoest passeacute il va doncchercher son dossier meacutedicalm how did Howard read when Freeman explained ti him what had happenedn What did her stepmother decide to do Why

o Can you explain the term laquo word of the stock raquo (pupille de la nation)p What questions have haunted thoward q Did Howard dare to speak to his father r What happened to his stepmother s What did Howard decide to do t What couldnrsquot howard believe Toutes les reacuteponses sont dans le texte ndeg4Voca Deserve meacuteriterPaper-route ditribution de magazines dans les boicirctes aux lettresMake it stick soyez ferme Thrust enfonceacuteQuiver freacutemirPathways route qui relie un endroit agrave un autreSever couper = out offTexte 1This target article discusses the verbal working memory system used in sentencecomprehension We review the idea of working memory as a short duration system in whichsmall amounts of information are simultaneously stored and manipulated in the service of atask and that syntactic processing in sentence comprehension requires such a storage andcomputational system We inquire whether the working memory system used in syntacticprocessing is the same as that used in verbally mediated tasks involving conscious controlledprocessing Various forms of evidence are considered the relationship between individualdifferences in working memory and individual differences in the efficiency of syntacticprocessing the effect of concurrent verbal memory load on syntactic processing andsyntactic processing in patients with poor short term memory poor working memory oraphasia The experimental results suggest that the verbal working memory system specializedfor assigning the syntactic structure of a sentence and for using that structure in determiningsentence meaning is distinct from the working memory system that underlies the use ofsentence meaning to accomplish further functions We present a theory of the components ofthe verbal working memory system and suggestions as to its neural basis

Texte 2IQ tests are traditionally viewed as a quantitative measure of a persons intelligenceChildren who score very well on IQ tests are often tracked into programs for the giftedwhile those who do very poorly are tracked into remedial programs Despite theirprevalence the true meaning and import of IQ tests are subjects of some controversy in thefields of education psychology and neuroscienceOver the past year the subjects of intelligence a possible biological basis for intelligence andways to improve intelligence have all received a significant amount of media attention Thisarticle is a short review of some of these studiesThere seem to be two main camps on the subject of intelligence In one camp are theresearchers who not only support the concept of IQ as a measure of intelligence but alsobelieve that there is a biological switch that governs this intelligence such as a gene or somekind of brain chemical These researchers also believe that IQ and thus intelligence can beimproved by external means such as through dietary supplements or specific learningexercisesIn the second camp are the researchers who reject the concept of a single definition ofintelligence and suggest instead that human intelligence is too complex a mesh of qualitieswhich cannot be measured by a single score on a single test These researchers also believethat intelligence can be improved but only by incorporating a much wider definition ofintelligence than is currently in place in our societyLets start with some of the studies that fall into the first camp of opinion on IQ as a measureof intelligenceIn July 1999 researchers at the University of New Mexico announced a study linking levelsof two brain chemicals to performance on IQ testsWilliam Brooks and his colleagues used brain-imaging techniques to measure levels ofcholine and N-acetylasparate (NAA) in the brains of 26 healthy volunteersThe researchers found that people with low levels of choline and high levels of NAA tended

to have the higher scores on IQ tests The researchers suggested that a manipulation of thelevels of these brain chemicals such as with dietary supplements could increase IQ scoresMethods for increasing IQ scores abound in the press and are also the focus of a number ofacademic articlesThe well discussed and much publicized Mozart effect stems from a Wisconsin study thatsuggests that listening to Mozart boosts IQ Although a number of later studies suggest thatthe effect may not be as powerful as originally thought many preschools have institutedprograms such as Mozart hour to give their students the musics perceived benefitsPopular dietary supplements such as gingko biloba and phosphatidylserine are advertised asbrain enhancement products that improve mental functions such as problem solving andmemory although there is very little scientific evidence to support these claims There is evena firm out of Beverly Hills that offers a product called Brain Gum Their promise for theproduct is encapsulated in their phone number 1-888 IQ BOOSTIn the field of child development Linda Acredolo a psychology professor at the University ofCalifornia Davis has found that babies who are taught sign language starting at the age of 11months tend to have higher average IQs when they reach second grade than their peers whowere not taught sign language (scores were 114 for the sign language proficient 102 for thenon-signers)Behavioral experimentation on mice is a traditional tool for the study of gene manipulation onintelligence Last September researchers at Princeton reported that genetically engineeredmice that over-express a particular form of the brain protein called the NMDA receptorperform better at a number of behavioral tasks than normal mice The researchers suggest thatthis receptor could be a target for treating learning and memory disorders-this creation of amouse that performs well on memory tasks has been described as a possible first step inmaking human beings smarterOne question should be considered Does performance on IQ tests really tell us somethingconcrete about a persons intelligence This leads us to the second camp of researchers-thosewho argue that traditional IQ tests do not tell the whole storyHoward Gardner a professor of education at Harvard University proposes the theory ofmultiple intelligences in which there are at least eight different types of intelligence all ofwhich must be taken into account when establishing a vision of a persons abilities andpotentialMichael Howe a psychology professor at Exeter University has spent ten years studying thedevelopment of high achievers such as Mozart Michael Faraday and Isaac Newton In hisbook Genius Explained Howe argues that most geniuses dont have some ineffable qualitythat promotes their intelligence above that of the general population He argues that whatdistinguished these admittedly remarkable people was incredible persistence and devotion totheir particular field of interest Howe believes that sheer intelligence as measured by an IQtest wont automatically lead to success without the added qualities of determination andperseveranceAnother researcher Dr Ken Richardson also argues that the idea of an IQ score is too strictof a limit on the definition of intelligence In his book The Making of Intelligence he suggeststhat the idea of a single cause or kind of intelligence is not supported by our ever-increasingunderstanding of the mind and its functions His main idea is that intelligence is not a staticthing that is coded for us by our genes but is instead a result of a dynamic interaction betweenthe mental process with which we represent the world and the culture in which we liveAccording to Dr Richardson society has as much an influence on our intelligence as do ourgenesThomas Edisons famous definition of genius as 99 perspiration and 1 inspiration suggeststhat intelligence is as much a product of nurture as it is of nature However it is the questionof the origin of that mysterious 1 that fuels much of the interest in IQ scores memoryenhancing drugs and mind-boosting music Research results from the smart mouse andfrom the New Mexico study on brain chemical levels suggest that there may in fact be abiological quality be it gene or chemical that is the seat of that extra brain power that detailsthe difference between smart and not-smart gifted and remedial Researchers likeGardner and Richardson argue instead that the brain is too plastic and complex forintelligence to be limited by the actions of a single gene chemical or concept of IQAll of this intriguing research tells us that just as in so many areas of science more time andstudy is necessary before we can hope to find a clear answer In the end the final answer to

the question of intelligence will most likely be a multi-layered vision of human potential thatcombines all of these studies in biology psychology and cultural contextTexte 3Is There a Critical Period for Learning a Foreign LanguageJune 2000by Lisa ChipongianThe Myth of Missed OpportunitiesA popular misconception regarding second-language learning is that there is a window orcritical period for learning a second language that shuts down around the onset of puberty Inhis article Is There a Child Advantage in Learning Foreign Languages Brad Marshallpoints out the harm this misconception can cause Adults may become doubtful of their abilityto learn a new language Their teachers may become skeptical too tending to plod throughtheir classes feeling there is little hope of success When it comes to learning a foreignlanguage many believe that the adult brain is in a state of shutdown relative to the childsneurological state of readinessEarly Foreign Language Instruction is Not a Magical ToolIn The Age Factor in Second Language Acquisition David Singleton concedes that in secondlanguageinstruction younger = better in the long run But this is a general rule with plentyof exceptions The exceptions include the 5 percent of adult bilinguals who master a secondlanguage even though they begin learning it when they are well into adulthood long after anycritical period has presumably come to a closeBoth research and the informal observations of those who are in daily contact with secondlanguagelearners suggest that an early start in a second language is neither a strictlynecessary nor a universally sufficient condition for the attainment of native-like proficiencyGiven the enormous variation in peoples experience of second languagesmdasheven (orespecially) in the classroommdashthis ought to be a truismAs John T Bruer author of The Myth of the First Three Years states One of the dangers oftheemphasis on critical periods is that it prompts us to pay too much attention to whenlearning occurs and too little attention to how learning might best occur Marshall agreespointing out that learning a foreign language in elementary schoolmdashwhat most researchersgenerally agree is the ideal timemdashis not a magical tool for creating perfect second-languagespeakers Timing in other words is not everythingMany assume that critical learning periods apply not only to second-language learning but toother school subjects like math and reading Such beliefs writes Bruer have raised needlessconcerns among educators For instance once a critical period is over is lost academicground irrecoverable Such concerns arise from a simplistic and over-generalized applicationof critical periods to learning The extreme view that children must learn a foreign languageearly or not at all grows out of popular images of critical periods as closing abruptly likewindows slamming shutIs There a Critical Period for Learning a Foreign Language - Page 2Foreign-Language Learning and Critical PeriodsThe question of whether or not there is a critical period for learning a foreign language is noteasily answered But there is certainly no specific age at which the window of opportunitycloses completely As with the visual system the language system consists of several featuresand is not as Singleton writes a monolith Certain features of the language system may bemore related to distinct critical periods than others According to Ellen Bialystok and KenjiHakuta authors of In Other Words The controversy over the optimal age for learning asecond language really hinges on the acquisition of a subset of possible linguistic features andfunctionsThe Grammar-Learning Window Never Completely ClosesAlthough acquiring the grammar of ones first language does seem to be subject to a criticalperiod which ends around puberty the issue of whether or not there is also a critical period forsecond-language grammar acquisition is more complex In The Myth of the First Three YearsBruer does not state that there is a critical period for second-language grammar learninginstead he claims that there may be some maturational constraints on second-languagegrammar learningBialystok and Hakuta complicate the response to whether or not there is an optimal age forsecond-language grammar acquisition even further They point out that learning somelinguistic features like tense seems to be affected by age yet other linguistic structures like

word order are resistant to any effect of the learners age In their book In Other WordsBialystok and Hakuta state that syntax remains accessible throughout life even though thecircumstances of our lives may muddy that access Overall the amazing human ability tolearn grammar they argue remains with us as long as we remain humanPhonological Acquisition Is Age-SensitiveUnlike grammar learning second-language phonological acquisition is subject to a sensitiveperiod The decline in unaccented learning of a foreign language is progressive howeverand not characterized by a predictably abrupt change According to a study by James Flegesimilar and not entirely novel sounds are the ones that are affected by age In other wordsnew sounds are easier to pronounce with native-like accuracy than sounds that are similar butnot identical to those found in ones first languageAccording to Bruer we know almost nothing about the stages within the critical period forphonological learning We do know Bruer continues that the system remains plastic andable to tune itself to a second phonologyuntil early in the second decade of lifeVocabulary Learning Has No Critical PeriodOf vocabulary acquisition in ones first language Singleton writes there is no point at whichvocabulary acquisition can be predicted to cease There is also Singleton suggests nocritical period for learning vocabulary in a second languageAccording to the results of a study by Helen Neville using brain recordings semanticinformation seems to be processed in the same way by both speakers of English as a secondlanguage and native English speakers throughout life In The Myth of the First Three YearsBruer relates this consistency in how we acquire vocabulary throughout life to brainmaturation how we process vocabulary does not change with brain maturation as one wouldexpect it would if it were a form of time-limited experience-expectant learning It seemsinstead that the neural circuitry we need to process semantic information and learn vocabularycomes on-line early in development and does not change as we matureConclusion Younger = Better in the Long RunIt may be that the image of a window slamming shut as an analogy for the effect of age onones ability to acquire a foreign language should be replaced by Bruers analogy of areservoir that gradually evaporates This analogy suggests a progressive rather than abruptdecline in ability over time Regarding critical periods in second-language acquisitionBialystok and Hakuta suggest that the difference between child and adult learners is morequantitative (or a matter of degree) than qualitative Overallthe evidence of a critical periodfor acquiring a second language is at best confusing Although the evidence argueBialystok and Hakuta indicates that the learning process is the same for both adults andchildren and that second-language learning is not necessarily subject to biological criticalperiods they do state that on average there is a continuous decline in ability with ageOlder beginners often show an initial advantage over younger beginners in learning a newlanguage however over time the younger beginners usually overtake the older beginnersThere seems then to be according to Bialystok and Hakuta a tortoise-and-the-hare effector as Singleton has put it younger = better in the long run For this reason we should by nomeans discount the importance of learning a second language early As Bruer states Thebrain and early childhood literature is correct to emphasize that second-language learning isincreasingly important and that often American schools provide too little language instructiontoo lateWhat should be questioned or re-evaluated are the underlying assumptions that side-step theissue of how best to teach foreign languages The age at which one first encounters a secondlanguage explains Singleton is only one of the many determinants of the ultimate level ofproficiency attained in that language We must not neglect other considerations includingwhat neuroscience is now telling us about how second languages might best be taught andlearnedTexte 4The Day His World Stood Stillby Joanna SchaffhausenWhen twenty-seven year old Henry M entered the hospital in 1953 for radical brain surgerythat was supposed to cure his epilepsy he was hopeful that the procedure would change hislife for the better Instead it trapped him in a mental time warp where TV is always a newinvention and Truman is forever president The removal of large sections of his temporallobes left Henry unable to form any new personal memories but his tragic loss revolutionized

the field of psychology and made HM the most-studied individual in the history of brainresearchHenry grew up outside of Hartford Connecticut and was by all accounts an amiable youngman with above average intelligence He liked to go ice skating and to listen to mystery showson the radio which he enjoyed because he could often deduce the villain ahead of theprogram detective Then on his sixteenth birthday Henry had his first grand mal seizureduring a celebratory trip to the city with his parents After that point the paralyzing seizuresarrived with increasing frequency until by the summer of 1953 he was experiencing as manyas eleven episodes per week He was unable to hold a steady job and his prospects forindependent living seemed dim There were not many effective treatments available forepilepsy in 1953 so it was with a mixture of hope and trepidation that Henrys family turnedto Dr William Scoville and his experimental surgeryThe Day His World Stood Still - Page 2The Fateful SurgeryThe idea behind the surgery was simple Seizures as Scoville correctly reasoned are causedby uncontrolled electrical impulses that start in a localized area and then spread throughoutthe rest of the brain If one could remove the part of the brain where the seizures originated itshould be possible to cure the epilepsy Henry had the most common form of the diseasecalled temporal lobe epilepsy which meant that his seizures began in the tissue located oneither side of his brain Dr Scoville removed a large chunk of Henrys right and left temporallobes which was a crucial decision because the brain is symmetrical and thus most importantstructures are duplicated Altogether Henry lost about a fist-sized portion of his brain whichencompassed (on both sides) the hippocampus the amygdala and the entorhinal andperirhinal cortices As it turns out the hippocampus is crucial for memory storage When helost his hippocampi Henry became frozen in 1953 remembering very well the events beforehis operation but unable to create any new memories He describes the experience like thisRight now Im wondering have I done or said anything amiss You see at this momenteverything looks clear to me but what happened just before Thats what worries me Its likewaking from a dream I just dont rememberWhat Henry Can Remember And What He CannotAt the time of Henrys surgery the study of memory was mostly limited to philosophicalwritings and introspective probing like the kind practiced by Sigmund Freud In the 1930sKarl Lashley began a systematic quest to find the exact location of memory in the brain Hetaught rats and monkeys a variety of tasks then destroyed a part of their brain reasoning thatif the animals could not remember after the lesion then he must have found the place wherememories reside After years of frustration Lashley concluded that nothing short of nearcomplete destruction of the brain caused the animals to forget their tasks and it seemed thatbiological study of memory was not possibleThen word began to spread of patient HM who had very localized brain damage but extremememory deficits Scientists were very interested in the precise nature of Henrys amnesia andbegan a careful study of which parts of his memory had been erased by the surgery and whichparts remained intact As noted before he had good recall of facts learned before hisoperation meaning that his long-term memory was unharmed Also Henry was able to holdinformation in storage for very short periods of time Most people can retain about sevenpieces of information (a telephone number for example) in memory for about thirty secondsand Henry scored normally on these kinds of tasks Thus his working memory (or scratchpadmemory) seemed unaffected by the loss of his hippocampus The main problem for Henrywas converting short-term memories into permanent storage a process called consolidationBased on the patterns of Henrys memory loss researchers formed the following hypothesesabout memory formation1) Short-term memories are biologically different from long-term memories because they donot require the hippocampus for formation2) Long-term memories are stored throughout the brain but the hippocampus is necessary forthe information to reach long-term storage Once the memory is permanently stored howeverthe hippocampus is no longer required Said another way the hippocampus is important forlong-term memory formation but not for memory maintenance or retrievalThis would explain why Henry can remember the events prior to his surgery but not store anynew memories afterward Even with thousands of repetitions he is unable to learn new factsHis doctors must reintroduce themselves each morning and Henry is never sure where he is

for very long Yet even as they marvel at the extent of his memory loss researchers havefound one other kind of memory task that Henry can perform normally skill learningOften termed procedural memory skill learning is a kind of unconscious memory Youmight recall your tennis lessons very well but when you hit the ball over the net there is noconscious awareness of each muscle group involved in the task Your backhand is simplyautomatic For Henry these kinds of motor skills are also automatic He does not rememberlearning them but his performance improves over time Learning to trace a star using areflection in the mirror for example is a task that most people do not do well the first timethey try it But with practice it becomes quite easy Henry shows the same kind ofimprovement on the star-tracing task even though each time he tries it he claims to havenever attempted it before Thus skill learning appears to be a special kind of long-memorythat does not require the hippocampusHenry Right NowStudy of Henrys case has led to some very seminal findings about memory Specifically itseems that the hippocampus is required for the formation of conscious long-term memoriesbut not for unconscious long-term skill memories or short-term recall Perhaps even moreimportantly Henry has vividly illustrated that there is a biological basis for memory and thatit is possible to use biological techniques to study a subject as elusive as memoryAs for Henrys current status he lives in a nursing home in Hartford and still travelsoccasionally to MIT for memory testing He enjoys doing crossword puzzles and watchingdetective shows on television His life is peaceful if not completely happy He worries oftenthat he has done something wrong and it is not possible for him to make any real friendssince he cannot remember a person from ten minutes to the next At times he seems to have asense of humor about his condition as in the following anecdote taken from his biographyMemorys Ghost The Strange Tale of Mr M and the Nature of Memory by Philip HiltsWhen walking down the corridor at MIT with Henry Dr Suzanne Corkin made the usualkind of small talk Do you know where you are HenryHenry grinned Why of course Im at MITDr Corkin was a bit surprised How do you know thatHenry laughed He pointed to a student nearby with a large MIT emblazoned on hissweatshirt Got ya that time Henry saidMainly though he leads a life of quiet confusion never knowing exactly how old he is (heguesses maybe thirty and is always surprised by his reflection in the mirror) and reliving hisgrief over the death of his mother every time he hears about it Though he does not recall hisoperation he knows that there is something wrong with his memory and has adopted aphilosophical stance on his problems It does get me upset but I always say to myself whatis to be is to be Thats the way I always figure it nowOften Henry will express the hope that others can learn from his unfortunate situation as hetold Philip Hilts in an interview several years agoWell what I keep thinking is that possibly I had an operation And somehow the memory isgoneAnd Im trying to figure it outI think of it all the time I dont remember this and whyI dont remember thatIs that worrisome Hilts wanted to knowWell it isnt worrisome in a way to me because I know that if they ever performed anoperation on me theyd learn from it It would help othersSadly the very nature of his memory loss prevents Henry from ever knowing the incrediblecontribution he has made to the field of psychology but his tale stands as an importantprologue to the ongoing story of memory research Long after Henry passes on HM willbe studied as the man whose unwitting sacrifice first vividly illustrated the important link

between memory and brain

Langue et Affaires Anglais Lecture 1 Business organization in Britain and the USA

1 Introduction What is a business - The 3 sectors of the economy - Business strategy The purpose of this lesson is to discuss the main business organizations of britain and america Brief definition of a business and give an overview of the 3 sectors of the economy

What is a business An organized effort to produce goods or services which can be supplied to satisfy the needs and wants of customers in exchange of a reward or payment which will give the producer or supplier an adequate return on his investment There are many different types of businesses Some are small local firms others are large companies make trade internationally or nationally Some may produce or sell goods whereas others provide a service Some do both such as computer stores that offer advice and maintenance to customers Some organizations are classified as businesses even though we may not think of them in this way ( football clubs or charities ) Businesses exist for a purpose A business needs funds Finance is usually the hardest thing to obtain A business needs customers and suppliers who provide many of the inputs such as raw materials Premises ex an office or a factory Management and organization A business may also need to protect its ideas or products through patents and copyright which make it illegal for other firms to copy directly the business idea or invention or by keeping new products secret until they are ready to launch by focussing on retaining key staff A business needs to have clear objectives An objective is a target that a business sets itself Difference between long and short term targets The targets must be regularly reviewed so that the business can measure its progress There are several objectives -Survive in the market -Break-even = cover costs -High motivation amongst its employees -Maximize profits -grow in size export -diversify and sell different products -Make returns to shareholders ( actionnaires ) of limited companies

2 Types of business Introduction Public sector and private sector

A) Sole tradersB) Partnerships The general partners The sleeping partners The salaried partner C) Limited companyIntroduction Definition of a limited company - Private limited companies - Public limited companies

D) FranchisingE) Types of businesses in AmericaF) Mergeers and acquisitionsG) Groups parent companies and subsidiaries H) Multinational and conglomeratesI) Blue chips

Conclusion

- In one camp are the researchers aho not only support the concept of IQ as a measureof intelligence but also believe that there is a biological switch that govern thisintelligence such as a gene or some kind of brain chemical = relative donc complexe- These reseachers also believe that IQ and this intelligence can be improved by externalmeans such as through diefary supplements or specific learning exercices = complexe- In the second camp are the researchers who reject the concept of a single definition ofintelligence and sufffest instead that human intelligence is too complexLa phrase complexe marqueurs de subordinationConjonctions de subordination 1 Surbordonnants apparaissant seuls After (al)though as because before if once sincehellip2 Combinaison de plusieurs termes - termineacutes par that in that so that such that except that in order thathellip- termineacutes par that facultatif now (that) provided (that) supposing (that) considering(that) seeing (that)- termineacutes par as as far as as long as as soon as so long as so ashellip- termineacutes par than sooner than rather than (au lieu de )- autres as if even if if only as though in casehellip3 Conjonctions correacutelatives combinaison de deux marqueurs une conjonction dans lasubordonneacutee et un autre terme dans la proposition englobanteIf then althoughyetnevertheless ashellipso whetherhellipor morelessthan assohellipthat suchas suchhellipthat no soonerhellip than4 Autres indicateurs de subordinationMarqueurs qui ne sont pas des conjonctions de subordination mais signalent un rapport desubordination- Termes en WHa- Subordonneacutees interrogatives I wander WHO it can beb- Subordonneacutees exclamatives Irsquom surprised HOW beautiful it turned out to bec- Relatives this is the man WHO came yesterday- Relative en THAT- The man that came yesterday- The only one that is worth read- Attention THAT relatif et conjonction (he said that he would come back)- Inversion sujet-auxiliaire- propositions conditionnelles- Had I known I would never have come if I had known- Were it not for you if it were not for you- Absence de verbe conjugueacute- Thinking it was too late he decided to stay home as he thought it was too late- Absence de signe de subordination - Conjonctives he said he would not come he said thathellip- Relatives he is the man I was telling you about he is the man whom I was tellingyou aboutAnglais L3 cours ndeg4Human memoryA set of stories where to put information A set of processes that act on stories3 differents stories - this sensory information storie- the short-term store- the long-temr store3 processes- encoding- maintenance- retrieval1048766 Sensory informations store ignored or paid attention to ignored writtent overIf paid attention to encoded to short term store1048766 Short-term store a mited storage capacity submitted to decay (from 12 to 30seconds) Interference (new information displaces older information) mental rehearsal(repeat the information subvocally) elaboration rehearsal (se reacutepeacuteter le mot dans

notre tecircte)Long-term store large quantity of informations maintains informations for very long periodsof timeattentionSENSORY MEMORY WORKING MEMORY LONG TERM MEMORYencodingretrievalrehearsalInfo not attended to forgetting forgettingLong term memoryDeclarative ProceduralSemantic EpisodicLike riding a bikeYour lastbirthday partyThis target article discusses the verbal working memory system used in sentencecomprehension We review the idea of working memory as a short duration system in whichsmall amounts of information are simultaneously stored and manipulated in the service of atask and that syntactic processing in sentence comprehension requires such a storage andcomputational system We inquire whether the working memory system used in syntacticprocessing is the same as that used in verbally mediated tasks involving conscious controlledprocessing Various forms of evidence are considered the relationship between individualdifferences in working memory and individual differences in the efficiency of syntacticprocessing the effect of concurrent verbal memory load on syntactic processing andsyntactic processing in patients with poor short term memory poor working memory oraphasia The experimental results suggest that the verbal working memory system specializedfor assigning the syntactic structure of a sentence and for using that structure in determiningsentence meaning is distinct from the working memory system that underlies the use ofsentence meaning to accomplish further functions We present a theory of the components ofthe verbal working memory system and suggestions as to its neural basis(si vous voulez le texte dans son inteacutegraliteacute je lrsquoai trouveacute ici httpwwwbbsonlineorgdocumentsa00000441bbs00000441-00bbscaplanhtml)En franccedilais Cet article discutesrsquointeacuteresse au systegraveme de meacutemoire de travail utiliseacute pour la compreacutehensiondes phrases Nous passons en revue lrsquoideacutee que la meacutemoire de travail correspond agrave un systegravemede courte dureacutee ougrave une petite quantiteacute drsquoinformations est simultaneacutement stockeacutee et manipuleacuteetravailleacutee pour reacutepondre agrave une tacircche et que le traitement syntaxique de la compreacutehension dephrase srsquoappuie sur un tel systegraveme de stockageOn cherche agrave savoir si le systegraveme de meacutemoire de travail utiliseacute dans le traitement syntaxiqueest le mecircme que celui utiliseacute dans les tacircches verbales impliquant des traitements conscients etcontrocircleacutes Les reacutesultats expeacuterimentaux suggegraverent que le systegraveme de meacutemoire de travail verbalspeacutecialiseacuteattribueacute agrave la structure syntaxique drsquoune phrasehellip On preacutesente une theacuteorie descomposantes du systegraveme de meacutemoire de travail et des suggestions concernant les basesneuronalesLA PHRASE COMPLEXE- Proposition agrave verbe fini- Proposition agrave verbe non finiVerbe fini le verbe dont la terminaison varie en fonction de la personne du temps dunombre (she goes out every night)Verbe non fini teminaison est non reacuteveacutelatrice du temps ou de la personne (obstructing theforr causes delay)(rien compris )LES SUBORDONNEacuteES Agrave VERBE NON FINI1 Infinitives en TO some were forced tu work at nightElles peuvent aussi ecirctre introduites pas laquo as if to in order to so as to raquo2 Infinitives sans TO as always he tried to help her sort things outElles peuvent aussi ecirctre introduites par laquo rather than sooner than raquo3 Propositions en ING standing there she fixed him4 Proposition en ED (participe passeacute) embarrassed she changed the subject

Elles peuvent aussi ecirctre introduites par when althoughtLe verbe non fini deacuteclenche neacutecessairement une deacutependance agrave une proposition agrave verbe finiLES PROPOSITIONS Agrave VERBE FINI1 les subordonneacutees relatives jouent un rocircle de compleacutementation introduction parWH that ou rienShe is known as as processing scientist the researcher who paved the way for furtherexperiments Relative who paved the way for further experiments expansion dusyntagme normal laquo the researcher raquo2 types de relatives restrictives et non restrictives (appositives) - restrictives identification de lrsquoanteacuteceacutedent permet de creacuteer un sous groupe agrave lrsquointeacuterieurdrsquoune classe de reacutefeacuterents those who donrsquot understand can ask questions (crsquoest uneideacutee ccedila )- appositives apportent une information suppleacutementaire sans identifier lrsquoanteacuteceacutedent this paper which was written by Delaene in 1997 is the first one to assess the neuralnetwork in L2 moderate subjects preacutecision apporteacutee apregraves-coup souvent mise entreparenthegravesesType particulier which he never rang back which rather surprised me rupture inteacuterative commentaire de lrsquoeacutenonciateurCOURS 5AMNESIAAmnesia is memomy less generaly caused by a brain trauma (amnesia due to psychologicaltrauma is less well documented)- retrograde amnesia less of memory of events prior to the trauma- anterograde amnesia less of memory for events occuring after the trauma (theirability to form new memories)HM and the study of anterograde amnesia - HM had bilateral temporal lobe epilepsy- As treatment he had a bilateral medial temporal lobectomy- This cured his epilepsy but left him whith severe anterograde amnesia He has beenunable to form new long term memories since the surgeryHMrsquos anterograde amnesia - HM cannot form new memories of people or events canrsquot remember his doctorscanrsquot remember his testing sessions- HM can remember (pretty much) his lige before the surgery some mild loss for the 2years prior surgery- Normal workinf memory (7+-2)- Basically he got stuck in time when he had his surgery 1953) il est resteacute bloqueacute aumoment de son opeacuterationHowever it turns out that HMrsquos performance improves on tasks - miror drawing task trace image while looking in mirror this is hard to do HMrsquosperformance improves or this task oven though he doesnrsquot remember over havingdone it beforeBases on HMrsquoS symptoms multiple memory systems (en regardant ce qursquoil se passait pourlui on a reacuteussit agrave mettre en eacutevidence plusieurs systegravemes de meacutemoire) - explicite (deacuteclarative) memory conscious items be verbally expressed- two systems episodic (the even of our lives) semantic (information about the world the meaning of words)- Implicite (procedural) memory non conscious expressed by improved performanceor taskLA PHRASE COMPLEXE CLASSIFICATION DES SUBORDONNEacuteES2 types de comparaison 1 comparaison drsquoeacutequivalence (=) ou de non eacutequivalence (+_)John is AS gifted AS Peter (eacutequivalence)John is MORE gifted THAN Peter ( non eacutequivalence +)John is LESS gifted THAN Peter (non eacutequivalence -)2 Comparaison de suffisance (enoughso) ou drsquoexcegraves (too much)He is gifted enough to succeed (suffisance)He is too bright to fail (excegraves)

Subordonneacutes comparatives - un eacuteleacutement compareacute he is as gifted he is too bright- un eacuteleacutement de comparaison as Peterto fail= AS AS+ MORE THAN- LESS THANSuffisance ENOUGH TOExcegraves TOO TOExercices trouvez le type de subordonneacutees - Children who score very weel on IQ tests are often tracked into programs for the gifted(while those who do very poorly are tracked into remedial programs- There seem to be two main camps on the subject of intelligence (P1 verbe non fini infinitive)In one camp are the researchers who not only support the concept of IQ as ameasure of intelligence but also believe that there is a biological switch that governs thisintelligence such as a gene or some kind of brain chemical (P1rsquo relative restrictive)These researchers also believe that IQ and thus intelligence can be improved byexternal means such as through dietary supplements or specific learning exercises (P1 eten souligneacute P14 conjonctive)In the second camp are the researchers who reject the concept of a single definition ofintelligence and suggest instead that human intelligence is too complex a mesh of qualitieswhich cannot be measured by a single score on a single test These researchers alsobelieve that intelligence can be improved but only by incorporating a much widerdefinition of intelligence than is currently in place in our society (P1 et en souligneacute P14relative restricitive)instead that human intelligence is too complex a mesh of qualities which cannot bemeasured by a single score on a single test These researchers also believe that intelligencecan be improved but only by incorporating a much wider definition of intelligence than iscurrently in place in our society (P1 et en souligne P1rsquo conjonctive)but only by incorporating a much wider definition of intelligence than is currently in placein our society (P2 comparative)LA PHRASE COMPLEXE ETUDE FONCTIONNELE DESSUBORDONNEacuteESEtude fonctionnelle srsquointeacuteresse aux propositions subordonneacuteesFonctions syntaxiques sujetcompleacutementattributadverbialSujet althought acquiring the grammar of onersquos first language does seem to be subject to acritical periodComplement - compleacutement drsquoobjet direct I saw John- Compleacutement drsquoattribut I bought John a nice sweat- Compleacutement propositionnel its depends on John- Compleacutement drsquoadjectif she was busy typing a lettreAdverbial compleacutement circonstancielRenseigne sur la circonstance du procegraves lieu temps maniegraverehellipLes conjonctions ont une valeur seacutemantique propreTEMPS After before since until when while as soon as onceLIEU Where whereverCONDITIONNELLE If unless provided that so long as on condition thatCONCESSIVE Thought althought while whereas even if if whenCAUSE Because since as v-ingBUT To so as to in order to so that on order thatCONSEQUENCE So thatCOMPARAISON As if as thoughtANGLAIS L3 COURS 7 (question sur le texte de Schaffausen)a he was living on his ownb b he was paralysedc He experienced ans attack characterised by less of consciousness muscles spamsans rigiding (definition de lrsquoeacutepilepsie)According to DR Scaville epilepsy is due to a the morphological asymetry of the hemispheres

b electrical impulses located in the hippocampus areasc electrical impulses spreading throughout the whole brainThe hippocampus the amygdala and the entorhinal and perihinal cortices are situateda in the cortexb in both temporal lobesc in the brainstemHow can you explain the plural laquo hippocampi raquo in laquo when he lost his hippocampi Henrybecame frozen in 1953 raquo (le pluriel de lrsquohippocampe)Lashleyrsquos experiments carried out on animalsa fit in with the precise nature of henryrsquoa amnesiab led him to conclude that biological study of memory is impossiblec prove that rats and monkeys behave differentlyHenryrsquos amnesia due to his surgery enabled researchers ti uderstand the role of hippocampusa in short-term memoryb in long-term memoryc in procedural memoryd in long-term memory formationHM can no longera play tennisb store new pieces of informationsc remember events prior to 1753d retain about seven pieces of information for about thirty secondsHenryrsquos case allows researchers to hypothesize that the hippocampus isunnecessary for the formation of long term memoriesnecessary for unconscious long-term skill memoriesrequired for the formation of short-term memoriesrequired for consolidationToday henry likeslistening to mystery showsgoing ice-skatingwatching detective showsdoing puzzlesMemory was largely studied befoe henryrsquos operation true or falseHenryrsquos case is now confirmed by other simular cases true or falseHenry has got lany friends true or falseHe can now live on his own true or falseSCRIPT AUDIOKey word mental illness procedure ice pick lobotomy emotionOn january 17 1946 psychobiologist nomed Freeman launched a radical new era in thetratment of mental illness in the countrySCRIPT 2 si vous voulez eacutecouter le texte crsquoest lagrave httpwwwbrainconnectioncomtopicsmain=fahm-memoryHoward dullyrsquos storya How did he go to Washington by flyb where did he go in Washington GW universityc What did he want to see my filesd What did he love to do e What did he find in his file f What was he must interested by g What did he want to understand h How did was he i Who want to see Dr Freeman j What happened to Howard lsquos nother How old was he then k What about the relationships between his stepmother (megravere adoptive) and him l What did his stepmother want H Dully srsquoest fait opeacuterer par Freeman et veut comprendre ce qursquoil srsquoest passeacute il va doncchercher son dossier meacutedicalm how did Howard read when Freeman explained ti him what had happenedn What did her stepmother decide to do Why

o Can you explain the term laquo word of the stock raquo (pupille de la nation)p What questions have haunted thoward q Did Howard dare to speak to his father r What happened to his stepmother s What did Howard decide to do t What couldnrsquot howard believe Toutes les reacuteponses sont dans le texte ndeg4Voca Deserve meacuteriterPaper-route ditribution de magazines dans les boicirctes aux lettresMake it stick soyez ferme Thrust enfonceacuteQuiver freacutemirPathways route qui relie un endroit agrave un autreSever couper = out offTexte 1This target article discusses the verbal working memory system used in sentencecomprehension We review the idea of working memory as a short duration system in whichsmall amounts of information are simultaneously stored and manipulated in the service of atask and that syntactic processing in sentence comprehension requires such a storage andcomputational system We inquire whether the working memory system used in syntacticprocessing is the same as that used in verbally mediated tasks involving conscious controlledprocessing Various forms of evidence are considered the relationship between individualdifferences in working memory and individual differences in the efficiency of syntacticprocessing the effect of concurrent verbal memory load on syntactic processing andsyntactic processing in patients with poor short term memory poor working memory oraphasia The experimental results suggest that the verbal working memory system specializedfor assigning the syntactic structure of a sentence and for using that structure in determiningsentence meaning is distinct from the working memory system that underlies the use ofsentence meaning to accomplish further functions We present a theory of the components ofthe verbal working memory system and suggestions as to its neural basis

Texte 2IQ tests are traditionally viewed as a quantitative measure of a persons intelligenceChildren who score very well on IQ tests are often tracked into programs for the giftedwhile those who do very poorly are tracked into remedial programs Despite theirprevalence the true meaning and import of IQ tests are subjects of some controversy in thefields of education psychology and neuroscienceOver the past year the subjects of intelligence a possible biological basis for intelligence andways to improve intelligence have all received a significant amount of media attention Thisarticle is a short review of some of these studiesThere seem to be two main camps on the subject of intelligence In one camp are theresearchers who not only support the concept of IQ as a measure of intelligence but alsobelieve that there is a biological switch that governs this intelligence such as a gene or somekind of brain chemical These researchers also believe that IQ and thus intelligence can beimproved by external means such as through dietary supplements or specific learningexercisesIn the second camp are the researchers who reject the concept of a single definition ofintelligence and suggest instead that human intelligence is too complex a mesh of qualitieswhich cannot be measured by a single score on a single test These researchers also believethat intelligence can be improved but only by incorporating a much wider definition ofintelligence than is currently in place in our societyLets start with some of the studies that fall into the first camp of opinion on IQ as a measureof intelligenceIn July 1999 researchers at the University of New Mexico announced a study linking levelsof two brain chemicals to performance on IQ testsWilliam Brooks and his colleagues used brain-imaging techniques to measure levels ofcholine and N-acetylasparate (NAA) in the brains of 26 healthy volunteersThe researchers found that people with low levels of choline and high levels of NAA tended

to have the higher scores on IQ tests The researchers suggested that a manipulation of thelevels of these brain chemicals such as with dietary supplements could increase IQ scoresMethods for increasing IQ scores abound in the press and are also the focus of a number ofacademic articlesThe well discussed and much publicized Mozart effect stems from a Wisconsin study thatsuggests that listening to Mozart boosts IQ Although a number of later studies suggest thatthe effect may not be as powerful as originally thought many preschools have institutedprograms such as Mozart hour to give their students the musics perceived benefitsPopular dietary supplements such as gingko biloba and phosphatidylserine are advertised asbrain enhancement products that improve mental functions such as problem solving andmemory although there is very little scientific evidence to support these claims There is evena firm out of Beverly Hills that offers a product called Brain Gum Their promise for theproduct is encapsulated in their phone number 1-888 IQ BOOSTIn the field of child development Linda Acredolo a psychology professor at the University ofCalifornia Davis has found that babies who are taught sign language starting at the age of 11months tend to have higher average IQs when they reach second grade than their peers whowere not taught sign language (scores were 114 for the sign language proficient 102 for thenon-signers)Behavioral experimentation on mice is a traditional tool for the study of gene manipulation onintelligence Last September researchers at Princeton reported that genetically engineeredmice that over-express a particular form of the brain protein called the NMDA receptorperform better at a number of behavioral tasks than normal mice The researchers suggest thatthis receptor could be a target for treating learning and memory disorders-this creation of amouse that performs well on memory tasks has been described as a possible first step inmaking human beings smarterOne question should be considered Does performance on IQ tests really tell us somethingconcrete about a persons intelligence This leads us to the second camp of researchers-thosewho argue that traditional IQ tests do not tell the whole storyHoward Gardner a professor of education at Harvard University proposes the theory ofmultiple intelligences in which there are at least eight different types of intelligence all ofwhich must be taken into account when establishing a vision of a persons abilities andpotentialMichael Howe a psychology professor at Exeter University has spent ten years studying thedevelopment of high achievers such as Mozart Michael Faraday and Isaac Newton In hisbook Genius Explained Howe argues that most geniuses dont have some ineffable qualitythat promotes their intelligence above that of the general population He argues that whatdistinguished these admittedly remarkable people was incredible persistence and devotion totheir particular field of interest Howe believes that sheer intelligence as measured by an IQtest wont automatically lead to success without the added qualities of determination andperseveranceAnother researcher Dr Ken Richardson also argues that the idea of an IQ score is too strictof a limit on the definition of intelligence In his book The Making of Intelligence he suggeststhat the idea of a single cause or kind of intelligence is not supported by our ever-increasingunderstanding of the mind and its functions His main idea is that intelligence is not a staticthing that is coded for us by our genes but is instead a result of a dynamic interaction betweenthe mental process with which we represent the world and the culture in which we liveAccording to Dr Richardson society has as much an influence on our intelligence as do ourgenesThomas Edisons famous definition of genius as 99 perspiration and 1 inspiration suggeststhat intelligence is as much a product of nurture as it is of nature However it is the questionof the origin of that mysterious 1 that fuels much of the interest in IQ scores memoryenhancing drugs and mind-boosting music Research results from the smart mouse andfrom the New Mexico study on brain chemical levels suggest that there may in fact be abiological quality be it gene or chemical that is the seat of that extra brain power that detailsthe difference between smart and not-smart gifted and remedial Researchers likeGardner and Richardson argue instead that the brain is too plastic and complex forintelligence to be limited by the actions of a single gene chemical or concept of IQAll of this intriguing research tells us that just as in so many areas of science more time andstudy is necessary before we can hope to find a clear answer In the end the final answer to

the question of intelligence will most likely be a multi-layered vision of human potential thatcombines all of these studies in biology psychology and cultural contextTexte 3Is There a Critical Period for Learning a Foreign LanguageJune 2000by Lisa ChipongianThe Myth of Missed OpportunitiesA popular misconception regarding second-language learning is that there is a window orcritical period for learning a second language that shuts down around the onset of puberty Inhis article Is There a Child Advantage in Learning Foreign Languages Brad Marshallpoints out the harm this misconception can cause Adults may become doubtful of their abilityto learn a new language Their teachers may become skeptical too tending to plod throughtheir classes feeling there is little hope of success When it comes to learning a foreignlanguage many believe that the adult brain is in a state of shutdown relative to the childsneurological state of readinessEarly Foreign Language Instruction is Not a Magical ToolIn The Age Factor in Second Language Acquisition David Singleton concedes that in secondlanguageinstruction younger = better in the long run But this is a general rule with plentyof exceptions The exceptions include the 5 percent of adult bilinguals who master a secondlanguage even though they begin learning it when they are well into adulthood long after anycritical period has presumably come to a closeBoth research and the informal observations of those who are in daily contact with secondlanguagelearners suggest that an early start in a second language is neither a strictlynecessary nor a universally sufficient condition for the attainment of native-like proficiencyGiven the enormous variation in peoples experience of second languagesmdasheven (orespecially) in the classroommdashthis ought to be a truismAs John T Bruer author of The Myth of the First Three Years states One of the dangers oftheemphasis on critical periods is that it prompts us to pay too much attention to whenlearning occurs and too little attention to how learning might best occur Marshall agreespointing out that learning a foreign language in elementary schoolmdashwhat most researchersgenerally agree is the ideal timemdashis not a magical tool for creating perfect second-languagespeakers Timing in other words is not everythingMany assume that critical learning periods apply not only to second-language learning but toother school subjects like math and reading Such beliefs writes Bruer have raised needlessconcerns among educators For instance once a critical period is over is lost academicground irrecoverable Such concerns arise from a simplistic and over-generalized applicationof critical periods to learning The extreme view that children must learn a foreign languageearly or not at all grows out of popular images of critical periods as closing abruptly likewindows slamming shutIs There a Critical Period for Learning a Foreign Language - Page 2Foreign-Language Learning and Critical PeriodsThe question of whether or not there is a critical period for learning a foreign language is noteasily answered But there is certainly no specific age at which the window of opportunitycloses completely As with the visual system the language system consists of several featuresand is not as Singleton writes a monolith Certain features of the language system may bemore related to distinct critical periods than others According to Ellen Bialystok and KenjiHakuta authors of In Other Words The controversy over the optimal age for learning asecond language really hinges on the acquisition of a subset of possible linguistic features andfunctionsThe Grammar-Learning Window Never Completely ClosesAlthough acquiring the grammar of ones first language does seem to be subject to a criticalperiod which ends around puberty the issue of whether or not there is also a critical period forsecond-language grammar acquisition is more complex In The Myth of the First Three YearsBruer does not state that there is a critical period for second-language grammar learninginstead he claims that there may be some maturational constraints on second-languagegrammar learningBialystok and Hakuta complicate the response to whether or not there is an optimal age forsecond-language grammar acquisition even further They point out that learning somelinguistic features like tense seems to be affected by age yet other linguistic structures like

word order are resistant to any effect of the learners age In their book In Other WordsBialystok and Hakuta state that syntax remains accessible throughout life even though thecircumstances of our lives may muddy that access Overall the amazing human ability tolearn grammar they argue remains with us as long as we remain humanPhonological Acquisition Is Age-SensitiveUnlike grammar learning second-language phonological acquisition is subject to a sensitiveperiod The decline in unaccented learning of a foreign language is progressive howeverand not characterized by a predictably abrupt change According to a study by James Flegesimilar and not entirely novel sounds are the ones that are affected by age In other wordsnew sounds are easier to pronounce with native-like accuracy than sounds that are similar butnot identical to those found in ones first languageAccording to Bruer we know almost nothing about the stages within the critical period forphonological learning We do know Bruer continues that the system remains plastic andable to tune itself to a second phonologyuntil early in the second decade of lifeVocabulary Learning Has No Critical PeriodOf vocabulary acquisition in ones first language Singleton writes there is no point at whichvocabulary acquisition can be predicted to cease There is also Singleton suggests nocritical period for learning vocabulary in a second languageAccording to the results of a study by Helen Neville using brain recordings semanticinformation seems to be processed in the same way by both speakers of English as a secondlanguage and native English speakers throughout life In The Myth of the First Three YearsBruer relates this consistency in how we acquire vocabulary throughout life to brainmaturation how we process vocabulary does not change with brain maturation as one wouldexpect it would if it were a form of time-limited experience-expectant learning It seemsinstead that the neural circuitry we need to process semantic information and learn vocabularycomes on-line early in development and does not change as we matureConclusion Younger = Better in the Long RunIt may be that the image of a window slamming shut as an analogy for the effect of age onones ability to acquire a foreign language should be replaced by Bruers analogy of areservoir that gradually evaporates This analogy suggests a progressive rather than abruptdecline in ability over time Regarding critical periods in second-language acquisitionBialystok and Hakuta suggest that the difference between child and adult learners is morequantitative (or a matter of degree) than qualitative Overallthe evidence of a critical periodfor acquiring a second language is at best confusing Although the evidence argueBialystok and Hakuta indicates that the learning process is the same for both adults andchildren and that second-language learning is not necessarily subject to biological criticalperiods they do state that on average there is a continuous decline in ability with ageOlder beginners often show an initial advantage over younger beginners in learning a newlanguage however over time the younger beginners usually overtake the older beginnersThere seems then to be according to Bialystok and Hakuta a tortoise-and-the-hare effector as Singleton has put it younger = better in the long run For this reason we should by nomeans discount the importance of learning a second language early As Bruer states Thebrain and early childhood literature is correct to emphasize that second-language learning isincreasingly important and that often American schools provide too little language instructiontoo lateWhat should be questioned or re-evaluated are the underlying assumptions that side-step theissue of how best to teach foreign languages The age at which one first encounters a secondlanguage explains Singleton is only one of the many determinants of the ultimate level ofproficiency attained in that language We must not neglect other considerations includingwhat neuroscience is now telling us about how second languages might best be taught andlearnedTexte 4The Day His World Stood Stillby Joanna SchaffhausenWhen twenty-seven year old Henry M entered the hospital in 1953 for radical brain surgerythat was supposed to cure his epilepsy he was hopeful that the procedure would change hislife for the better Instead it trapped him in a mental time warp where TV is always a newinvention and Truman is forever president The removal of large sections of his temporallobes left Henry unable to form any new personal memories but his tragic loss revolutionized

the field of psychology and made HM the most-studied individual in the history of brainresearchHenry grew up outside of Hartford Connecticut and was by all accounts an amiable youngman with above average intelligence He liked to go ice skating and to listen to mystery showson the radio which he enjoyed because he could often deduce the villain ahead of theprogram detective Then on his sixteenth birthday Henry had his first grand mal seizureduring a celebratory trip to the city with his parents After that point the paralyzing seizuresarrived with increasing frequency until by the summer of 1953 he was experiencing as manyas eleven episodes per week He was unable to hold a steady job and his prospects forindependent living seemed dim There were not many effective treatments available forepilepsy in 1953 so it was with a mixture of hope and trepidation that Henrys family turnedto Dr William Scoville and his experimental surgeryThe Day His World Stood Still - Page 2The Fateful SurgeryThe idea behind the surgery was simple Seizures as Scoville correctly reasoned are causedby uncontrolled electrical impulses that start in a localized area and then spread throughoutthe rest of the brain If one could remove the part of the brain where the seizures originated itshould be possible to cure the epilepsy Henry had the most common form of the diseasecalled temporal lobe epilepsy which meant that his seizures began in the tissue located oneither side of his brain Dr Scoville removed a large chunk of Henrys right and left temporallobes which was a crucial decision because the brain is symmetrical and thus most importantstructures are duplicated Altogether Henry lost about a fist-sized portion of his brain whichencompassed (on both sides) the hippocampus the amygdala and the entorhinal andperirhinal cortices As it turns out the hippocampus is crucial for memory storage When helost his hippocampi Henry became frozen in 1953 remembering very well the events beforehis operation but unable to create any new memories He describes the experience like thisRight now Im wondering have I done or said anything amiss You see at this momenteverything looks clear to me but what happened just before Thats what worries me Its likewaking from a dream I just dont rememberWhat Henry Can Remember And What He CannotAt the time of Henrys surgery the study of memory was mostly limited to philosophicalwritings and introspective probing like the kind practiced by Sigmund Freud In the 1930sKarl Lashley began a systematic quest to find the exact location of memory in the brain Hetaught rats and monkeys a variety of tasks then destroyed a part of their brain reasoning thatif the animals could not remember after the lesion then he must have found the place wherememories reside After years of frustration Lashley concluded that nothing short of nearcomplete destruction of the brain caused the animals to forget their tasks and it seemed thatbiological study of memory was not possibleThen word began to spread of patient HM who had very localized brain damage but extremememory deficits Scientists were very interested in the precise nature of Henrys amnesia andbegan a careful study of which parts of his memory had been erased by the surgery and whichparts remained intact As noted before he had good recall of facts learned before hisoperation meaning that his long-term memory was unharmed Also Henry was able to holdinformation in storage for very short periods of time Most people can retain about sevenpieces of information (a telephone number for example) in memory for about thirty secondsand Henry scored normally on these kinds of tasks Thus his working memory (or scratchpadmemory) seemed unaffected by the loss of his hippocampus The main problem for Henrywas converting short-term memories into permanent storage a process called consolidationBased on the patterns of Henrys memory loss researchers formed the following hypothesesabout memory formation1) Short-term memories are biologically different from long-term memories because they donot require the hippocampus for formation2) Long-term memories are stored throughout the brain but the hippocampus is necessary forthe information to reach long-term storage Once the memory is permanently stored howeverthe hippocampus is no longer required Said another way the hippocampus is important forlong-term memory formation but not for memory maintenance or retrievalThis would explain why Henry can remember the events prior to his surgery but not store anynew memories afterward Even with thousands of repetitions he is unable to learn new factsHis doctors must reintroduce themselves each morning and Henry is never sure where he is

for very long Yet even as they marvel at the extent of his memory loss researchers havefound one other kind of memory task that Henry can perform normally skill learningOften termed procedural memory skill learning is a kind of unconscious memory Youmight recall your tennis lessons very well but when you hit the ball over the net there is noconscious awareness of each muscle group involved in the task Your backhand is simplyautomatic For Henry these kinds of motor skills are also automatic He does not rememberlearning them but his performance improves over time Learning to trace a star using areflection in the mirror for example is a task that most people do not do well the first timethey try it But with practice it becomes quite easy Henry shows the same kind ofimprovement on the star-tracing task even though each time he tries it he claims to havenever attempted it before Thus skill learning appears to be a special kind of long-memorythat does not require the hippocampusHenry Right NowStudy of Henrys case has led to some very seminal findings about memory Specifically itseems that the hippocampus is required for the formation of conscious long-term memoriesbut not for unconscious long-term skill memories or short-term recall Perhaps even moreimportantly Henry has vividly illustrated that there is a biological basis for memory and thatit is possible to use biological techniques to study a subject as elusive as memoryAs for Henrys current status he lives in a nursing home in Hartford and still travelsoccasionally to MIT for memory testing He enjoys doing crossword puzzles and watchingdetective shows on television His life is peaceful if not completely happy He worries oftenthat he has done something wrong and it is not possible for him to make any real friendssince he cannot remember a person from ten minutes to the next At times he seems to have asense of humor about his condition as in the following anecdote taken from his biographyMemorys Ghost The Strange Tale of Mr M and the Nature of Memory by Philip HiltsWhen walking down the corridor at MIT with Henry Dr Suzanne Corkin made the usualkind of small talk Do you know where you are HenryHenry grinned Why of course Im at MITDr Corkin was a bit surprised How do you know thatHenry laughed He pointed to a student nearby with a large MIT emblazoned on hissweatshirt Got ya that time Henry saidMainly though he leads a life of quiet confusion never knowing exactly how old he is (heguesses maybe thirty and is always surprised by his reflection in the mirror) and reliving hisgrief over the death of his mother every time he hears about it Though he does not recall hisoperation he knows that there is something wrong with his memory and has adopted aphilosophical stance on his problems It does get me upset but I always say to myself whatis to be is to be Thats the way I always figure it nowOften Henry will express the hope that others can learn from his unfortunate situation as hetold Philip Hilts in an interview several years agoWell what I keep thinking is that possibly I had an operation And somehow the memory isgoneAnd Im trying to figure it outI think of it all the time I dont remember this and whyI dont remember thatIs that worrisome Hilts wanted to knowWell it isnt worrisome in a way to me because I know that if they ever performed anoperation on me theyd learn from it It would help othersSadly the very nature of his memory loss prevents Henry from ever knowing the incrediblecontribution he has made to the field of psychology but his tale stands as an importantprologue to the ongoing story of memory research Long after Henry passes on HM willbe studied as the man whose unwitting sacrifice first vividly illustrated the important link

between memory and brain

Langue et Affaires Anglais Lecture 1 Business organization in Britain and the USA

1 Introduction What is a business - The 3 sectors of the economy - Business strategy The purpose of this lesson is to discuss the main business organizations of britain and america Brief definition of a business and give an overview of the 3 sectors of the economy

What is a business An organized effort to produce goods or services which can be supplied to satisfy the needs and wants of customers in exchange of a reward or payment which will give the producer or supplier an adequate return on his investment There are many different types of businesses Some are small local firms others are large companies make trade internationally or nationally Some may produce or sell goods whereas others provide a service Some do both such as computer stores that offer advice and maintenance to customers Some organizations are classified as businesses even though we may not think of them in this way ( football clubs or charities ) Businesses exist for a purpose A business needs funds Finance is usually the hardest thing to obtain A business needs customers and suppliers who provide many of the inputs such as raw materials Premises ex an office or a factory Management and organization A business may also need to protect its ideas or products through patents and copyright which make it illegal for other firms to copy directly the business idea or invention or by keeping new products secret until they are ready to launch by focussing on retaining key staff A business needs to have clear objectives An objective is a target that a business sets itself Difference between long and short term targets The targets must be regularly reviewed so that the business can measure its progress There are several objectives -Survive in the market -Break-even = cover costs -High motivation amongst its employees -Maximize profits -grow in size export -diversify and sell different products -Make returns to shareholders ( actionnaires ) of limited companies

2 Types of business Introduction Public sector and private sector

A) Sole tradersB) Partnerships The general partners The sleeping partners The salaried partner C) Limited companyIntroduction Definition of a limited company - Private limited companies - Public limited companies

D) FranchisingE) Types of businesses in AmericaF) Mergeers and acquisitionsG) Groups parent companies and subsidiaries H) Multinational and conglomeratesI) Blue chips

Conclusion

notre tecircte)Long-term store large quantity of informations maintains informations for very long periodsof timeattentionSENSORY MEMORY WORKING MEMORY LONG TERM MEMORYencodingretrievalrehearsalInfo not attended to forgetting forgettingLong term memoryDeclarative ProceduralSemantic EpisodicLike riding a bikeYour lastbirthday partyThis target article discusses the verbal working memory system used in sentencecomprehension We review the idea of working memory as a short duration system in whichsmall amounts of information are simultaneously stored and manipulated in the service of atask and that syntactic processing in sentence comprehension requires such a storage andcomputational system We inquire whether the working memory system used in syntacticprocessing is the same as that used in verbally mediated tasks involving conscious controlledprocessing Various forms of evidence are considered the relationship between individualdifferences in working memory and individual differences in the efficiency of syntacticprocessing the effect of concurrent verbal memory load on syntactic processing andsyntactic processing in patients with poor short term memory poor working memory oraphasia The experimental results suggest that the verbal working memory system specializedfor assigning the syntactic structure of a sentence and for using that structure in determiningsentence meaning is distinct from the working memory system that underlies the use ofsentence meaning to accomplish further functions We present a theory of the components ofthe verbal working memory system and suggestions as to its neural basis(si vous voulez le texte dans son inteacutegraliteacute je lrsquoai trouveacute ici httpwwwbbsonlineorgdocumentsa00000441bbs00000441-00bbscaplanhtml)En franccedilais Cet article discutesrsquointeacuteresse au systegraveme de meacutemoire de travail utiliseacute pour la compreacutehensiondes phrases Nous passons en revue lrsquoideacutee que la meacutemoire de travail correspond agrave un systegravemede courte dureacutee ougrave une petite quantiteacute drsquoinformations est simultaneacutement stockeacutee et manipuleacuteetravailleacutee pour reacutepondre agrave une tacircche et que le traitement syntaxique de la compreacutehension dephrase srsquoappuie sur un tel systegraveme de stockageOn cherche agrave savoir si le systegraveme de meacutemoire de travail utiliseacute dans le traitement syntaxiqueest le mecircme que celui utiliseacute dans les tacircches verbales impliquant des traitements conscients etcontrocircleacutes Les reacutesultats expeacuterimentaux suggegraverent que le systegraveme de meacutemoire de travail verbalspeacutecialiseacuteattribueacute agrave la structure syntaxique drsquoune phrasehellip On preacutesente une theacuteorie descomposantes du systegraveme de meacutemoire de travail et des suggestions concernant les basesneuronalesLA PHRASE COMPLEXE- Proposition agrave verbe fini- Proposition agrave verbe non finiVerbe fini le verbe dont la terminaison varie en fonction de la personne du temps dunombre (she goes out every night)Verbe non fini teminaison est non reacuteveacutelatrice du temps ou de la personne (obstructing theforr causes delay)(rien compris )LES SUBORDONNEacuteES Agrave VERBE NON FINI1 Infinitives en TO some were forced tu work at nightElles peuvent aussi ecirctre introduites pas laquo as if to in order to so as to raquo2 Infinitives sans TO as always he tried to help her sort things outElles peuvent aussi ecirctre introduites par laquo rather than sooner than raquo3 Propositions en ING standing there she fixed him4 Proposition en ED (participe passeacute) embarrassed she changed the subject

Elles peuvent aussi ecirctre introduites par when althoughtLe verbe non fini deacuteclenche neacutecessairement une deacutependance agrave une proposition agrave verbe finiLES PROPOSITIONS Agrave VERBE FINI1 les subordonneacutees relatives jouent un rocircle de compleacutementation introduction parWH that ou rienShe is known as as processing scientist the researcher who paved the way for furtherexperiments Relative who paved the way for further experiments expansion dusyntagme normal laquo the researcher raquo2 types de relatives restrictives et non restrictives (appositives) - restrictives identification de lrsquoanteacuteceacutedent permet de creacuteer un sous groupe agrave lrsquointeacuterieurdrsquoune classe de reacutefeacuterents those who donrsquot understand can ask questions (crsquoest uneideacutee ccedila )- appositives apportent une information suppleacutementaire sans identifier lrsquoanteacuteceacutedent this paper which was written by Delaene in 1997 is the first one to assess the neuralnetwork in L2 moderate subjects preacutecision apporteacutee apregraves-coup souvent mise entreparenthegravesesType particulier which he never rang back which rather surprised me rupture inteacuterative commentaire de lrsquoeacutenonciateurCOURS 5AMNESIAAmnesia is memomy less generaly caused by a brain trauma (amnesia due to psychologicaltrauma is less well documented)- retrograde amnesia less of memory of events prior to the trauma- anterograde amnesia less of memory for events occuring after the trauma (theirability to form new memories)HM and the study of anterograde amnesia - HM had bilateral temporal lobe epilepsy- As treatment he had a bilateral medial temporal lobectomy- This cured his epilepsy but left him whith severe anterograde amnesia He has beenunable to form new long term memories since the surgeryHMrsquos anterograde amnesia - HM cannot form new memories of people or events canrsquot remember his doctorscanrsquot remember his testing sessions- HM can remember (pretty much) his lige before the surgery some mild loss for the 2years prior surgery- Normal workinf memory (7+-2)- Basically he got stuck in time when he had his surgery 1953) il est resteacute bloqueacute aumoment de son opeacuterationHowever it turns out that HMrsquos performance improves on tasks - miror drawing task trace image while looking in mirror this is hard to do HMrsquosperformance improves or this task oven though he doesnrsquot remember over havingdone it beforeBases on HMrsquoS symptoms multiple memory systems (en regardant ce qursquoil se passait pourlui on a reacuteussit agrave mettre en eacutevidence plusieurs systegravemes de meacutemoire) - explicite (deacuteclarative) memory conscious items be verbally expressed- two systems episodic (the even of our lives) semantic (information about the world the meaning of words)- Implicite (procedural) memory non conscious expressed by improved performanceor taskLA PHRASE COMPLEXE CLASSIFICATION DES SUBORDONNEacuteES2 types de comparaison 1 comparaison drsquoeacutequivalence (=) ou de non eacutequivalence (+_)John is AS gifted AS Peter (eacutequivalence)John is MORE gifted THAN Peter ( non eacutequivalence +)John is LESS gifted THAN Peter (non eacutequivalence -)2 Comparaison de suffisance (enoughso) ou drsquoexcegraves (too much)He is gifted enough to succeed (suffisance)He is too bright to fail (excegraves)

Subordonneacutes comparatives - un eacuteleacutement compareacute he is as gifted he is too bright- un eacuteleacutement de comparaison as Peterto fail= AS AS+ MORE THAN- LESS THANSuffisance ENOUGH TOExcegraves TOO TOExercices trouvez le type de subordonneacutees - Children who score very weel on IQ tests are often tracked into programs for the gifted(while those who do very poorly are tracked into remedial programs- There seem to be two main camps on the subject of intelligence (P1 verbe non fini infinitive)In one camp are the researchers who not only support the concept of IQ as ameasure of intelligence but also believe that there is a biological switch that governs thisintelligence such as a gene or some kind of brain chemical (P1rsquo relative restrictive)These researchers also believe that IQ and thus intelligence can be improved byexternal means such as through dietary supplements or specific learning exercises (P1 eten souligneacute P14 conjonctive)In the second camp are the researchers who reject the concept of a single definition ofintelligence and suggest instead that human intelligence is too complex a mesh of qualitieswhich cannot be measured by a single score on a single test These researchers alsobelieve that intelligence can be improved but only by incorporating a much widerdefinition of intelligence than is currently in place in our society (P1 et en souligneacute P14relative restricitive)instead that human intelligence is too complex a mesh of qualities which cannot bemeasured by a single score on a single test These researchers also believe that intelligencecan be improved but only by incorporating a much wider definition of intelligence than iscurrently in place in our society (P1 et en souligne P1rsquo conjonctive)but only by incorporating a much wider definition of intelligence than is currently in placein our society (P2 comparative)LA PHRASE COMPLEXE ETUDE FONCTIONNELE DESSUBORDONNEacuteESEtude fonctionnelle srsquointeacuteresse aux propositions subordonneacuteesFonctions syntaxiques sujetcompleacutementattributadverbialSujet althought acquiring the grammar of onersquos first language does seem to be subject to acritical periodComplement - compleacutement drsquoobjet direct I saw John- Compleacutement drsquoattribut I bought John a nice sweat- Compleacutement propositionnel its depends on John- Compleacutement drsquoadjectif she was busy typing a lettreAdverbial compleacutement circonstancielRenseigne sur la circonstance du procegraves lieu temps maniegraverehellipLes conjonctions ont une valeur seacutemantique propreTEMPS After before since until when while as soon as onceLIEU Where whereverCONDITIONNELLE If unless provided that so long as on condition thatCONCESSIVE Thought althought while whereas even if if whenCAUSE Because since as v-ingBUT To so as to in order to so that on order thatCONSEQUENCE So thatCOMPARAISON As if as thoughtANGLAIS L3 COURS 7 (question sur le texte de Schaffausen)a he was living on his ownb b he was paralysedc He experienced ans attack characterised by less of consciousness muscles spamsans rigiding (definition de lrsquoeacutepilepsie)According to DR Scaville epilepsy is due to a the morphological asymetry of the hemispheres

b electrical impulses located in the hippocampus areasc electrical impulses spreading throughout the whole brainThe hippocampus the amygdala and the entorhinal and perihinal cortices are situateda in the cortexb in both temporal lobesc in the brainstemHow can you explain the plural laquo hippocampi raquo in laquo when he lost his hippocampi Henrybecame frozen in 1953 raquo (le pluriel de lrsquohippocampe)Lashleyrsquos experiments carried out on animalsa fit in with the precise nature of henryrsquoa amnesiab led him to conclude that biological study of memory is impossiblec prove that rats and monkeys behave differentlyHenryrsquos amnesia due to his surgery enabled researchers ti uderstand the role of hippocampusa in short-term memoryb in long-term memoryc in procedural memoryd in long-term memory formationHM can no longera play tennisb store new pieces of informationsc remember events prior to 1753d retain about seven pieces of information for about thirty secondsHenryrsquos case allows researchers to hypothesize that the hippocampus isunnecessary for the formation of long term memoriesnecessary for unconscious long-term skill memoriesrequired for the formation of short-term memoriesrequired for consolidationToday henry likeslistening to mystery showsgoing ice-skatingwatching detective showsdoing puzzlesMemory was largely studied befoe henryrsquos operation true or falseHenryrsquos case is now confirmed by other simular cases true or falseHenry has got lany friends true or falseHe can now live on his own true or falseSCRIPT AUDIOKey word mental illness procedure ice pick lobotomy emotionOn january 17 1946 psychobiologist nomed Freeman launched a radical new era in thetratment of mental illness in the countrySCRIPT 2 si vous voulez eacutecouter le texte crsquoest lagrave httpwwwbrainconnectioncomtopicsmain=fahm-memoryHoward dullyrsquos storya How did he go to Washington by flyb where did he go in Washington GW universityc What did he want to see my filesd What did he love to do e What did he find in his file f What was he must interested by g What did he want to understand h How did was he i Who want to see Dr Freeman j What happened to Howard lsquos nother How old was he then k What about the relationships between his stepmother (megravere adoptive) and him l What did his stepmother want H Dully srsquoest fait opeacuterer par Freeman et veut comprendre ce qursquoil srsquoest passeacute il va doncchercher son dossier meacutedicalm how did Howard read when Freeman explained ti him what had happenedn What did her stepmother decide to do Why

o Can you explain the term laquo word of the stock raquo (pupille de la nation)p What questions have haunted thoward q Did Howard dare to speak to his father r What happened to his stepmother s What did Howard decide to do t What couldnrsquot howard believe Toutes les reacuteponses sont dans le texte ndeg4Voca Deserve meacuteriterPaper-route ditribution de magazines dans les boicirctes aux lettresMake it stick soyez ferme Thrust enfonceacuteQuiver freacutemirPathways route qui relie un endroit agrave un autreSever couper = out offTexte 1This target article discusses the verbal working memory system used in sentencecomprehension We review the idea of working memory as a short duration system in whichsmall amounts of information are simultaneously stored and manipulated in the service of atask and that syntactic processing in sentence comprehension requires such a storage andcomputational system We inquire whether the working memory system used in syntacticprocessing is the same as that used in verbally mediated tasks involving conscious controlledprocessing Various forms of evidence are considered the relationship between individualdifferences in working memory and individual differences in the efficiency of syntacticprocessing the effect of concurrent verbal memory load on syntactic processing andsyntactic processing in patients with poor short term memory poor working memory oraphasia The experimental results suggest that the verbal working memory system specializedfor assigning the syntactic structure of a sentence and for using that structure in determiningsentence meaning is distinct from the working memory system that underlies the use ofsentence meaning to accomplish further functions We present a theory of the components ofthe verbal working memory system and suggestions as to its neural basis

Texte 2IQ tests are traditionally viewed as a quantitative measure of a persons intelligenceChildren who score very well on IQ tests are often tracked into programs for the giftedwhile those who do very poorly are tracked into remedial programs Despite theirprevalence the true meaning and import of IQ tests are subjects of some controversy in thefields of education psychology and neuroscienceOver the past year the subjects of intelligence a possible biological basis for intelligence andways to improve intelligence have all received a significant amount of media attention Thisarticle is a short review of some of these studiesThere seem to be two main camps on the subject of intelligence In one camp are theresearchers who not only support the concept of IQ as a measure of intelligence but alsobelieve that there is a biological switch that governs this intelligence such as a gene or somekind of brain chemical These researchers also believe that IQ and thus intelligence can beimproved by external means such as through dietary supplements or specific learningexercisesIn the second camp are the researchers who reject the concept of a single definition ofintelligence and suggest instead that human intelligence is too complex a mesh of qualitieswhich cannot be measured by a single score on a single test These researchers also believethat intelligence can be improved but only by incorporating a much wider definition ofintelligence than is currently in place in our societyLets start with some of the studies that fall into the first camp of opinion on IQ as a measureof intelligenceIn July 1999 researchers at the University of New Mexico announced a study linking levelsof two brain chemicals to performance on IQ testsWilliam Brooks and his colleagues used brain-imaging techniques to measure levels ofcholine and N-acetylasparate (NAA) in the brains of 26 healthy volunteersThe researchers found that people with low levels of choline and high levels of NAA tended

to have the higher scores on IQ tests The researchers suggested that a manipulation of thelevels of these brain chemicals such as with dietary supplements could increase IQ scoresMethods for increasing IQ scores abound in the press and are also the focus of a number ofacademic articlesThe well discussed and much publicized Mozart effect stems from a Wisconsin study thatsuggests that listening to Mozart boosts IQ Although a number of later studies suggest thatthe effect may not be as powerful as originally thought many preschools have institutedprograms such as Mozart hour to give their students the musics perceived benefitsPopular dietary supplements such as gingko biloba and phosphatidylserine are advertised asbrain enhancement products that improve mental functions such as problem solving andmemory although there is very little scientific evidence to support these claims There is evena firm out of Beverly Hills that offers a product called Brain Gum Their promise for theproduct is encapsulated in their phone number 1-888 IQ BOOSTIn the field of child development Linda Acredolo a psychology professor at the University ofCalifornia Davis has found that babies who are taught sign language starting at the age of 11months tend to have higher average IQs when they reach second grade than their peers whowere not taught sign language (scores were 114 for the sign language proficient 102 for thenon-signers)Behavioral experimentation on mice is a traditional tool for the study of gene manipulation onintelligence Last September researchers at Princeton reported that genetically engineeredmice that over-express a particular form of the brain protein called the NMDA receptorperform better at a number of behavioral tasks than normal mice The researchers suggest thatthis receptor could be a target for treating learning and memory disorders-this creation of amouse that performs well on memory tasks has been described as a possible first step inmaking human beings smarterOne question should be considered Does performance on IQ tests really tell us somethingconcrete about a persons intelligence This leads us to the second camp of researchers-thosewho argue that traditional IQ tests do not tell the whole storyHoward Gardner a professor of education at Harvard University proposes the theory ofmultiple intelligences in which there are at least eight different types of intelligence all ofwhich must be taken into account when establishing a vision of a persons abilities andpotentialMichael Howe a psychology professor at Exeter University has spent ten years studying thedevelopment of high achievers such as Mozart Michael Faraday and Isaac Newton In hisbook Genius Explained Howe argues that most geniuses dont have some ineffable qualitythat promotes their intelligence above that of the general population He argues that whatdistinguished these admittedly remarkable people was incredible persistence and devotion totheir particular field of interest Howe believes that sheer intelligence as measured by an IQtest wont automatically lead to success without the added qualities of determination andperseveranceAnother researcher Dr Ken Richardson also argues that the idea of an IQ score is too strictof a limit on the definition of intelligence In his book The Making of Intelligence he suggeststhat the idea of a single cause or kind of intelligence is not supported by our ever-increasingunderstanding of the mind and its functions His main idea is that intelligence is not a staticthing that is coded for us by our genes but is instead a result of a dynamic interaction betweenthe mental process with which we represent the world and the culture in which we liveAccording to Dr Richardson society has as much an influence on our intelligence as do ourgenesThomas Edisons famous definition of genius as 99 perspiration and 1 inspiration suggeststhat intelligence is as much a product of nurture as it is of nature However it is the questionof the origin of that mysterious 1 that fuels much of the interest in IQ scores memoryenhancing drugs and mind-boosting music Research results from the smart mouse andfrom the New Mexico study on brain chemical levels suggest that there may in fact be abiological quality be it gene or chemical that is the seat of that extra brain power that detailsthe difference between smart and not-smart gifted and remedial Researchers likeGardner and Richardson argue instead that the brain is too plastic and complex forintelligence to be limited by the actions of a single gene chemical or concept of IQAll of this intriguing research tells us that just as in so many areas of science more time andstudy is necessary before we can hope to find a clear answer In the end the final answer to

the question of intelligence will most likely be a multi-layered vision of human potential thatcombines all of these studies in biology psychology and cultural contextTexte 3Is There a Critical Period for Learning a Foreign LanguageJune 2000by Lisa ChipongianThe Myth of Missed OpportunitiesA popular misconception regarding second-language learning is that there is a window orcritical period for learning a second language that shuts down around the onset of puberty Inhis article Is There a Child Advantage in Learning Foreign Languages Brad Marshallpoints out the harm this misconception can cause Adults may become doubtful of their abilityto learn a new language Their teachers may become skeptical too tending to plod throughtheir classes feeling there is little hope of success When it comes to learning a foreignlanguage many believe that the adult brain is in a state of shutdown relative to the childsneurological state of readinessEarly Foreign Language Instruction is Not a Magical ToolIn The Age Factor in Second Language Acquisition David Singleton concedes that in secondlanguageinstruction younger = better in the long run But this is a general rule with plentyof exceptions The exceptions include the 5 percent of adult bilinguals who master a secondlanguage even though they begin learning it when they are well into adulthood long after anycritical period has presumably come to a closeBoth research and the informal observations of those who are in daily contact with secondlanguagelearners suggest that an early start in a second language is neither a strictlynecessary nor a universally sufficient condition for the attainment of native-like proficiencyGiven the enormous variation in peoples experience of second languagesmdasheven (orespecially) in the classroommdashthis ought to be a truismAs John T Bruer author of The Myth of the First Three Years states One of the dangers oftheemphasis on critical periods is that it prompts us to pay too much attention to whenlearning occurs and too little attention to how learning might best occur Marshall agreespointing out that learning a foreign language in elementary schoolmdashwhat most researchersgenerally agree is the ideal timemdashis not a magical tool for creating perfect second-languagespeakers Timing in other words is not everythingMany assume that critical learning periods apply not only to second-language learning but toother school subjects like math and reading Such beliefs writes Bruer have raised needlessconcerns among educators For instance once a critical period is over is lost academicground irrecoverable Such concerns arise from a simplistic and over-generalized applicationof critical periods to learning The extreme view that children must learn a foreign languageearly or not at all grows out of popular images of critical periods as closing abruptly likewindows slamming shutIs There a Critical Period for Learning a Foreign Language - Page 2Foreign-Language Learning and Critical PeriodsThe question of whether or not there is a critical period for learning a foreign language is noteasily answered But there is certainly no specific age at which the window of opportunitycloses completely As with the visual system the language system consists of several featuresand is not as Singleton writes a monolith Certain features of the language system may bemore related to distinct critical periods than others According to Ellen Bialystok and KenjiHakuta authors of In Other Words The controversy over the optimal age for learning asecond language really hinges on the acquisition of a subset of possible linguistic features andfunctionsThe Grammar-Learning Window Never Completely ClosesAlthough acquiring the grammar of ones first language does seem to be subject to a criticalperiod which ends around puberty the issue of whether or not there is also a critical period forsecond-language grammar acquisition is more complex In The Myth of the First Three YearsBruer does not state that there is a critical period for second-language grammar learninginstead he claims that there may be some maturational constraints on second-languagegrammar learningBialystok and Hakuta complicate the response to whether or not there is an optimal age forsecond-language grammar acquisition even further They point out that learning somelinguistic features like tense seems to be affected by age yet other linguistic structures like

word order are resistant to any effect of the learners age In their book In Other WordsBialystok and Hakuta state that syntax remains accessible throughout life even though thecircumstances of our lives may muddy that access Overall the amazing human ability tolearn grammar they argue remains with us as long as we remain humanPhonological Acquisition Is Age-SensitiveUnlike grammar learning second-language phonological acquisition is subject to a sensitiveperiod The decline in unaccented learning of a foreign language is progressive howeverand not characterized by a predictably abrupt change According to a study by James Flegesimilar and not entirely novel sounds are the ones that are affected by age In other wordsnew sounds are easier to pronounce with native-like accuracy than sounds that are similar butnot identical to those found in ones first languageAccording to Bruer we know almost nothing about the stages within the critical period forphonological learning We do know Bruer continues that the system remains plastic andable to tune itself to a second phonologyuntil early in the second decade of lifeVocabulary Learning Has No Critical PeriodOf vocabulary acquisition in ones first language Singleton writes there is no point at whichvocabulary acquisition can be predicted to cease There is also Singleton suggests nocritical period for learning vocabulary in a second languageAccording to the results of a study by Helen Neville using brain recordings semanticinformation seems to be processed in the same way by both speakers of English as a secondlanguage and native English speakers throughout life In The Myth of the First Three YearsBruer relates this consistency in how we acquire vocabulary throughout life to brainmaturation how we process vocabulary does not change with brain maturation as one wouldexpect it would if it were a form of time-limited experience-expectant learning It seemsinstead that the neural circuitry we need to process semantic information and learn vocabularycomes on-line early in development and does not change as we matureConclusion Younger = Better in the Long RunIt may be that the image of a window slamming shut as an analogy for the effect of age onones ability to acquire a foreign language should be replaced by Bruers analogy of areservoir that gradually evaporates This analogy suggests a progressive rather than abruptdecline in ability over time Regarding critical periods in second-language acquisitionBialystok and Hakuta suggest that the difference between child and adult learners is morequantitative (or a matter of degree) than qualitative Overallthe evidence of a critical periodfor acquiring a second language is at best confusing Although the evidence argueBialystok and Hakuta indicates that the learning process is the same for both adults andchildren and that second-language learning is not necessarily subject to biological criticalperiods they do state that on average there is a continuous decline in ability with ageOlder beginners often show an initial advantage over younger beginners in learning a newlanguage however over time the younger beginners usually overtake the older beginnersThere seems then to be according to Bialystok and Hakuta a tortoise-and-the-hare effector as Singleton has put it younger = better in the long run For this reason we should by nomeans discount the importance of learning a second language early As Bruer states Thebrain and early childhood literature is correct to emphasize that second-language learning isincreasingly important and that often American schools provide too little language instructiontoo lateWhat should be questioned or re-evaluated are the underlying assumptions that side-step theissue of how best to teach foreign languages The age at which one first encounters a secondlanguage explains Singleton is only one of the many determinants of the ultimate level ofproficiency attained in that language We must not neglect other considerations includingwhat neuroscience is now telling us about how second languages might best be taught andlearnedTexte 4The Day His World Stood Stillby Joanna SchaffhausenWhen twenty-seven year old Henry M entered the hospital in 1953 for radical brain surgerythat was supposed to cure his epilepsy he was hopeful that the procedure would change hislife for the better Instead it trapped him in a mental time warp where TV is always a newinvention and Truman is forever president The removal of large sections of his temporallobes left Henry unable to form any new personal memories but his tragic loss revolutionized

the field of psychology and made HM the most-studied individual in the history of brainresearchHenry grew up outside of Hartford Connecticut and was by all accounts an amiable youngman with above average intelligence He liked to go ice skating and to listen to mystery showson the radio which he enjoyed because he could often deduce the villain ahead of theprogram detective Then on his sixteenth birthday Henry had his first grand mal seizureduring a celebratory trip to the city with his parents After that point the paralyzing seizuresarrived with increasing frequency until by the summer of 1953 he was experiencing as manyas eleven episodes per week He was unable to hold a steady job and his prospects forindependent living seemed dim There were not many effective treatments available forepilepsy in 1953 so it was with a mixture of hope and trepidation that Henrys family turnedto Dr William Scoville and his experimental surgeryThe Day His World Stood Still - Page 2The Fateful SurgeryThe idea behind the surgery was simple Seizures as Scoville correctly reasoned are causedby uncontrolled electrical impulses that start in a localized area and then spread throughoutthe rest of the brain If one could remove the part of the brain where the seizures originated itshould be possible to cure the epilepsy Henry had the most common form of the diseasecalled temporal lobe epilepsy which meant that his seizures began in the tissue located oneither side of his brain Dr Scoville removed a large chunk of Henrys right and left temporallobes which was a crucial decision because the brain is symmetrical and thus most importantstructures are duplicated Altogether Henry lost about a fist-sized portion of his brain whichencompassed (on both sides) the hippocampus the amygdala and the entorhinal andperirhinal cortices As it turns out the hippocampus is crucial for memory storage When helost his hippocampi Henry became frozen in 1953 remembering very well the events beforehis operation but unable to create any new memories He describes the experience like thisRight now Im wondering have I done or said anything amiss You see at this momenteverything looks clear to me but what happened just before Thats what worries me Its likewaking from a dream I just dont rememberWhat Henry Can Remember And What He CannotAt the time of Henrys surgery the study of memory was mostly limited to philosophicalwritings and introspective probing like the kind practiced by Sigmund Freud In the 1930sKarl Lashley began a systematic quest to find the exact location of memory in the brain Hetaught rats and monkeys a variety of tasks then destroyed a part of their brain reasoning thatif the animals could not remember after the lesion then he must have found the place wherememories reside After years of frustration Lashley concluded that nothing short of nearcomplete destruction of the brain caused the animals to forget their tasks and it seemed thatbiological study of memory was not possibleThen word began to spread of patient HM who had very localized brain damage but extremememory deficits Scientists were very interested in the precise nature of Henrys amnesia andbegan a careful study of which parts of his memory had been erased by the surgery and whichparts remained intact As noted before he had good recall of facts learned before hisoperation meaning that his long-term memory was unharmed Also Henry was able to holdinformation in storage for very short periods of time Most people can retain about sevenpieces of information (a telephone number for example) in memory for about thirty secondsand Henry scored normally on these kinds of tasks Thus his working memory (or scratchpadmemory) seemed unaffected by the loss of his hippocampus The main problem for Henrywas converting short-term memories into permanent storage a process called consolidationBased on the patterns of Henrys memory loss researchers formed the following hypothesesabout memory formation1) Short-term memories are biologically different from long-term memories because they donot require the hippocampus for formation2) Long-term memories are stored throughout the brain but the hippocampus is necessary forthe information to reach long-term storage Once the memory is permanently stored howeverthe hippocampus is no longer required Said another way the hippocampus is important forlong-term memory formation but not for memory maintenance or retrievalThis would explain why Henry can remember the events prior to his surgery but not store anynew memories afterward Even with thousands of repetitions he is unable to learn new factsHis doctors must reintroduce themselves each morning and Henry is never sure where he is

for very long Yet even as they marvel at the extent of his memory loss researchers havefound one other kind of memory task that Henry can perform normally skill learningOften termed procedural memory skill learning is a kind of unconscious memory Youmight recall your tennis lessons very well but when you hit the ball over the net there is noconscious awareness of each muscle group involved in the task Your backhand is simplyautomatic For Henry these kinds of motor skills are also automatic He does not rememberlearning them but his performance improves over time Learning to trace a star using areflection in the mirror for example is a task that most people do not do well the first timethey try it But with practice it becomes quite easy Henry shows the same kind ofimprovement on the star-tracing task even though each time he tries it he claims to havenever attempted it before Thus skill learning appears to be a special kind of long-memorythat does not require the hippocampusHenry Right NowStudy of Henrys case has led to some very seminal findings about memory Specifically itseems that the hippocampus is required for the formation of conscious long-term memoriesbut not for unconscious long-term skill memories or short-term recall Perhaps even moreimportantly Henry has vividly illustrated that there is a biological basis for memory and thatit is possible to use biological techniques to study a subject as elusive as memoryAs for Henrys current status he lives in a nursing home in Hartford and still travelsoccasionally to MIT for memory testing He enjoys doing crossword puzzles and watchingdetective shows on television His life is peaceful if not completely happy He worries oftenthat he has done something wrong and it is not possible for him to make any real friendssince he cannot remember a person from ten minutes to the next At times he seems to have asense of humor about his condition as in the following anecdote taken from his biographyMemorys Ghost The Strange Tale of Mr M and the Nature of Memory by Philip HiltsWhen walking down the corridor at MIT with Henry Dr Suzanne Corkin made the usualkind of small talk Do you know where you are HenryHenry grinned Why of course Im at MITDr Corkin was a bit surprised How do you know thatHenry laughed He pointed to a student nearby with a large MIT emblazoned on hissweatshirt Got ya that time Henry saidMainly though he leads a life of quiet confusion never knowing exactly how old he is (heguesses maybe thirty and is always surprised by his reflection in the mirror) and reliving hisgrief over the death of his mother every time he hears about it Though he does not recall hisoperation he knows that there is something wrong with his memory and has adopted aphilosophical stance on his problems It does get me upset but I always say to myself whatis to be is to be Thats the way I always figure it nowOften Henry will express the hope that others can learn from his unfortunate situation as hetold Philip Hilts in an interview several years agoWell what I keep thinking is that possibly I had an operation And somehow the memory isgoneAnd Im trying to figure it outI think of it all the time I dont remember this and whyI dont remember thatIs that worrisome Hilts wanted to knowWell it isnt worrisome in a way to me because I know that if they ever performed anoperation on me theyd learn from it It would help othersSadly the very nature of his memory loss prevents Henry from ever knowing the incrediblecontribution he has made to the field of psychology but his tale stands as an importantprologue to the ongoing story of memory research Long after Henry passes on HM willbe studied as the man whose unwitting sacrifice first vividly illustrated the important link

between memory and brain

Langue et Affaires Anglais Lecture 1 Business organization in Britain and the USA

1 Introduction What is a business - The 3 sectors of the economy - Business strategy The purpose of this lesson is to discuss the main business organizations of britain and america Brief definition of a business and give an overview of the 3 sectors of the economy

What is a business An organized effort to produce goods or services which can be supplied to satisfy the needs and wants of customers in exchange of a reward or payment which will give the producer or supplier an adequate return on his investment There are many different types of businesses Some are small local firms others are large companies make trade internationally or nationally Some may produce or sell goods whereas others provide a service Some do both such as computer stores that offer advice and maintenance to customers Some organizations are classified as businesses even though we may not think of them in this way ( football clubs or charities ) Businesses exist for a purpose A business needs funds Finance is usually the hardest thing to obtain A business needs customers and suppliers who provide many of the inputs such as raw materials Premises ex an office or a factory Management and organization A business may also need to protect its ideas or products through patents and copyright which make it illegal for other firms to copy directly the business idea or invention or by keeping new products secret until they are ready to launch by focussing on retaining key staff A business needs to have clear objectives An objective is a target that a business sets itself Difference between long and short term targets The targets must be regularly reviewed so that the business can measure its progress There are several objectives -Survive in the market -Break-even = cover costs -High motivation amongst its employees -Maximize profits -grow in size export -diversify and sell different products -Make returns to shareholders ( actionnaires ) of limited companies

2 Types of business Introduction Public sector and private sector

A) Sole tradersB) Partnerships The general partners The sleeping partners The salaried partner C) Limited companyIntroduction Definition of a limited company - Private limited companies - Public limited companies

D) FranchisingE) Types of businesses in AmericaF) Mergeers and acquisitionsG) Groups parent companies and subsidiaries H) Multinational and conglomeratesI) Blue chips

Conclusion

Elles peuvent aussi ecirctre introduites par when althoughtLe verbe non fini deacuteclenche neacutecessairement une deacutependance agrave une proposition agrave verbe finiLES PROPOSITIONS Agrave VERBE FINI1 les subordonneacutees relatives jouent un rocircle de compleacutementation introduction parWH that ou rienShe is known as as processing scientist the researcher who paved the way for furtherexperiments Relative who paved the way for further experiments expansion dusyntagme normal laquo the researcher raquo2 types de relatives restrictives et non restrictives (appositives) - restrictives identification de lrsquoanteacuteceacutedent permet de creacuteer un sous groupe agrave lrsquointeacuterieurdrsquoune classe de reacutefeacuterents those who donrsquot understand can ask questions (crsquoest uneideacutee ccedila )- appositives apportent une information suppleacutementaire sans identifier lrsquoanteacuteceacutedent this paper which was written by Delaene in 1997 is the first one to assess the neuralnetwork in L2 moderate subjects preacutecision apporteacutee apregraves-coup souvent mise entreparenthegravesesType particulier which he never rang back which rather surprised me rupture inteacuterative commentaire de lrsquoeacutenonciateurCOURS 5AMNESIAAmnesia is memomy less generaly caused by a brain trauma (amnesia due to psychologicaltrauma is less well documented)- retrograde amnesia less of memory of events prior to the trauma- anterograde amnesia less of memory for events occuring after the trauma (theirability to form new memories)HM and the study of anterograde amnesia - HM had bilateral temporal lobe epilepsy- As treatment he had a bilateral medial temporal lobectomy- This cured his epilepsy but left him whith severe anterograde amnesia He has beenunable to form new long term memories since the surgeryHMrsquos anterograde amnesia - HM cannot form new memories of people or events canrsquot remember his doctorscanrsquot remember his testing sessions- HM can remember (pretty much) his lige before the surgery some mild loss for the 2years prior surgery- Normal workinf memory (7+-2)- Basically he got stuck in time when he had his surgery 1953) il est resteacute bloqueacute aumoment de son opeacuterationHowever it turns out that HMrsquos performance improves on tasks - miror drawing task trace image while looking in mirror this is hard to do HMrsquosperformance improves or this task oven though he doesnrsquot remember over havingdone it beforeBases on HMrsquoS symptoms multiple memory systems (en regardant ce qursquoil se passait pourlui on a reacuteussit agrave mettre en eacutevidence plusieurs systegravemes de meacutemoire) - explicite (deacuteclarative) memory conscious items be verbally expressed- two systems episodic (the even of our lives) semantic (information about the world the meaning of words)- Implicite (procedural) memory non conscious expressed by improved performanceor taskLA PHRASE COMPLEXE CLASSIFICATION DES SUBORDONNEacuteES2 types de comparaison 1 comparaison drsquoeacutequivalence (=) ou de non eacutequivalence (+_)John is AS gifted AS Peter (eacutequivalence)John is MORE gifted THAN Peter ( non eacutequivalence +)John is LESS gifted THAN Peter (non eacutequivalence -)2 Comparaison de suffisance (enoughso) ou drsquoexcegraves (too much)He is gifted enough to succeed (suffisance)He is too bright to fail (excegraves)

Subordonneacutes comparatives - un eacuteleacutement compareacute he is as gifted he is too bright- un eacuteleacutement de comparaison as Peterto fail= AS AS+ MORE THAN- LESS THANSuffisance ENOUGH TOExcegraves TOO TOExercices trouvez le type de subordonneacutees - Children who score very weel on IQ tests are often tracked into programs for the gifted(while those who do very poorly are tracked into remedial programs- There seem to be two main camps on the subject of intelligence (P1 verbe non fini infinitive)In one camp are the researchers who not only support the concept of IQ as ameasure of intelligence but also believe that there is a biological switch that governs thisintelligence such as a gene or some kind of brain chemical (P1rsquo relative restrictive)These researchers also believe that IQ and thus intelligence can be improved byexternal means such as through dietary supplements or specific learning exercises (P1 eten souligneacute P14 conjonctive)In the second camp are the researchers who reject the concept of a single definition ofintelligence and suggest instead that human intelligence is too complex a mesh of qualitieswhich cannot be measured by a single score on a single test These researchers alsobelieve that intelligence can be improved but only by incorporating a much widerdefinition of intelligence than is currently in place in our society (P1 et en souligneacute P14relative restricitive)instead that human intelligence is too complex a mesh of qualities which cannot bemeasured by a single score on a single test These researchers also believe that intelligencecan be improved but only by incorporating a much wider definition of intelligence than iscurrently in place in our society (P1 et en souligne P1rsquo conjonctive)but only by incorporating a much wider definition of intelligence than is currently in placein our society (P2 comparative)LA PHRASE COMPLEXE ETUDE FONCTIONNELE DESSUBORDONNEacuteESEtude fonctionnelle srsquointeacuteresse aux propositions subordonneacuteesFonctions syntaxiques sujetcompleacutementattributadverbialSujet althought acquiring the grammar of onersquos first language does seem to be subject to acritical periodComplement - compleacutement drsquoobjet direct I saw John- Compleacutement drsquoattribut I bought John a nice sweat- Compleacutement propositionnel its depends on John- Compleacutement drsquoadjectif she was busy typing a lettreAdverbial compleacutement circonstancielRenseigne sur la circonstance du procegraves lieu temps maniegraverehellipLes conjonctions ont une valeur seacutemantique propreTEMPS After before since until when while as soon as onceLIEU Where whereverCONDITIONNELLE If unless provided that so long as on condition thatCONCESSIVE Thought althought while whereas even if if whenCAUSE Because since as v-ingBUT To so as to in order to so that on order thatCONSEQUENCE So thatCOMPARAISON As if as thoughtANGLAIS L3 COURS 7 (question sur le texte de Schaffausen)a he was living on his ownb b he was paralysedc He experienced ans attack characterised by less of consciousness muscles spamsans rigiding (definition de lrsquoeacutepilepsie)According to DR Scaville epilepsy is due to a the morphological asymetry of the hemispheres

b electrical impulses located in the hippocampus areasc electrical impulses spreading throughout the whole brainThe hippocampus the amygdala and the entorhinal and perihinal cortices are situateda in the cortexb in both temporal lobesc in the brainstemHow can you explain the plural laquo hippocampi raquo in laquo when he lost his hippocampi Henrybecame frozen in 1953 raquo (le pluriel de lrsquohippocampe)Lashleyrsquos experiments carried out on animalsa fit in with the precise nature of henryrsquoa amnesiab led him to conclude that biological study of memory is impossiblec prove that rats and monkeys behave differentlyHenryrsquos amnesia due to his surgery enabled researchers ti uderstand the role of hippocampusa in short-term memoryb in long-term memoryc in procedural memoryd in long-term memory formationHM can no longera play tennisb store new pieces of informationsc remember events prior to 1753d retain about seven pieces of information for about thirty secondsHenryrsquos case allows researchers to hypothesize that the hippocampus isunnecessary for the formation of long term memoriesnecessary for unconscious long-term skill memoriesrequired for the formation of short-term memoriesrequired for consolidationToday henry likeslistening to mystery showsgoing ice-skatingwatching detective showsdoing puzzlesMemory was largely studied befoe henryrsquos operation true or falseHenryrsquos case is now confirmed by other simular cases true or falseHenry has got lany friends true or falseHe can now live on his own true or falseSCRIPT AUDIOKey word mental illness procedure ice pick lobotomy emotionOn january 17 1946 psychobiologist nomed Freeman launched a radical new era in thetratment of mental illness in the countrySCRIPT 2 si vous voulez eacutecouter le texte crsquoest lagrave httpwwwbrainconnectioncomtopicsmain=fahm-memoryHoward dullyrsquos storya How did he go to Washington by flyb where did he go in Washington GW universityc What did he want to see my filesd What did he love to do e What did he find in his file f What was he must interested by g What did he want to understand h How did was he i Who want to see Dr Freeman j What happened to Howard lsquos nother How old was he then k What about the relationships between his stepmother (megravere adoptive) and him l What did his stepmother want H Dully srsquoest fait opeacuterer par Freeman et veut comprendre ce qursquoil srsquoest passeacute il va doncchercher son dossier meacutedicalm how did Howard read when Freeman explained ti him what had happenedn What did her stepmother decide to do Why

o Can you explain the term laquo word of the stock raquo (pupille de la nation)p What questions have haunted thoward q Did Howard dare to speak to his father r What happened to his stepmother s What did Howard decide to do t What couldnrsquot howard believe Toutes les reacuteponses sont dans le texte ndeg4Voca Deserve meacuteriterPaper-route ditribution de magazines dans les boicirctes aux lettresMake it stick soyez ferme Thrust enfonceacuteQuiver freacutemirPathways route qui relie un endroit agrave un autreSever couper = out offTexte 1This target article discusses the verbal working memory system used in sentencecomprehension We review the idea of working memory as a short duration system in whichsmall amounts of information are simultaneously stored and manipulated in the service of atask and that syntactic processing in sentence comprehension requires such a storage andcomputational system We inquire whether the working memory system used in syntacticprocessing is the same as that used in verbally mediated tasks involving conscious controlledprocessing Various forms of evidence are considered the relationship between individualdifferences in working memory and individual differences in the efficiency of syntacticprocessing the effect of concurrent verbal memory load on syntactic processing andsyntactic processing in patients with poor short term memory poor working memory oraphasia The experimental results suggest that the verbal working memory system specializedfor assigning the syntactic structure of a sentence and for using that structure in determiningsentence meaning is distinct from the working memory system that underlies the use ofsentence meaning to accomplish further functions We present a theory of the components ofthe verbal working memory system and suggestions as to its neural basis

Texte 2IQ tests are traditionally viewed as a quantitative measure of a persons intelligenceChildren who score very well on IQ tests are often tracked into programs for the giftedwhile those who do very poorly are tracked into remedial programs Despite theirprevalence the true meaning and import of IQ tests are subjects of some controversy in thefields of education psychology and neuroscienceOver the past year the subjects of intelligence a possible biological basis for intelligence andways to improve intelligence have all received a significant amount of media attention Thisarticle is a short review of some of these studiesThere seem to be two main camps on the subject of intelligence In one camp are theresearchers who not only support the concept of IQ as a measure of intelligence but alsobelieve that there is a biological switch that governs this intelligence such as a gene or somekind of brain chemical These researchers also believe that IQ and thus intelligence can beimproved by external means such as through dietary supplements or specific learningexercisesIn the second camp are the researchers who reject the concept of a single definition ofintelligence and suggest instead that human intelligence is too complex a mesh of qualitieswhich cannot be measured by a single score on a single test These researchers also believethat intelligence can be improved but only by incorporating a much wider definition ofintelligence than is currently in place in our societyLets start with some of the studies that fall into the first camp of opinion on IQ as a measureof intelligenceIn July 1999 researchers at the University of New Mexico announced a study linking levelsof two brain chemicals to performance on IQ testsWilliam Brooks and his colleagues used brain-imaging techniques to measure levels ofcholine and N-acetylasparate (NAA) in the brains of 26 healthy volunteersThe researchers found that people with low levels of choline and high levels of NAA tended

to have the higher scores on IQ tests The researchers suggested that a manipulation of thelevels of these brain chemicals such as with dietary supplements could increase IQ scoresMethods for increasing IQ scores abound in the press and are also the focus of a number ofacademic articlesThe well discussed and much publicized Mozart effect stems from a Wisconsin study thatsuggests that listening to Mozart boosts IQ Although a number of later studies suggest thatthe effect may not be as powerful as originally thought many preschools have institutedprograms such as Mozart hour to give their students the musics perceived benefitsPopular dietary supplements such as gingko biloba and phosphatidylserine are advertised asbrain enhancement products that improve mental functions such as problem solving andmemory although there is very little scientific evidence to support these claims There is evena firm out of Beverly Hills that offers a product called Brain Gum Their promise for theproduct is encapsulated in their phone number 1-888 IQ BOOSTIn the field of child development Linda Acredolo a psychology professor at the University ofCalifornia Davis has found that babies who are taught sign language starting at the age of 11months tend to have higher average IQs when they reach second grade than their peers whowere not taught sign language (scores were 114 for the sign language proficient 102 for thenon-signers)Behavioral experimentation on mice is a traditional tool for the study of gene manipulation onintelligence Last September researchers at Princeton reported that genetically engineeredmice that over-express a particular form of the brain protein called the NMDA receptorperform better at a number of behavioral tasks than normal mice The researchers suggest thatthis receptor could be a target for treating learning and memory disorders-this creation of amouse that performs well on memory tasks has been described as a possible first step inmaking human beings smarterOne question should be considered Does performance on IQ tests really tell us somethingconcrete about a persons intelligence This leads us to the second camp of researchers-thosewho argue that traditional IQ tests do not tell the whole storyHoward Gardner a professor of education at Harvard University proposes the theory ofmultiple intelligences in which there are at least eight different types of intelligence all ofwhich must be taken into account when establishing a vision of a persons abilities andpotentialMichael Howe a psychology professor at Exeter University has spent ten years studying thedevelopment of high achievers such as Mozart Michael Faraday and Isaac Newton In hisbook Genius Explained Howe argues that most geniuses dont have some ineffable qualitythat promotes their intelligence above that of the general population He argues that whatdistinguished these admittedly remarkable people was incredible persistence and devotion totheir particular field of interest Howe believes that sheer intelligence as measured by an IQtest wont automatically lead to success without the added qualities of determination andperseveranceAnother researcher Dr Ken Richardson also argues that the idea of an IQ score is too strictof a limit on the definition of intelligence In his book The Making of Intelligence he suggeststhat the idea of a single cause or kind of intelligence is not supported by our ever-increasingunderstanding of the mind and its functions His main idea is that intelligence is not a staticthing that is coded for us by our genes but is instead a result of a dynamic interaction betweenthe mental process with which we represent the world and the culture in which we liveAccording to Dr Richardson society has as much an influence on our intelligence as do ourgenesThomas Edisons famous definition of genius as 99 perspiration and 1 inspiration suggeststhat intelligence is as much a product of nurture as it is of nature However it is the questionof the origin of that mysterious 1 that fuels much of the interest in IQ scores memoryenhancing drugs and mind-boosting music Research results from the smart mouse andfrom the New Mexico study on brain chemical levels suggest that there may in fact be abiological quality be it gene or chemical that is the seat of that extra brain power that detailsthe difference between smart and not-smart gifted and remedial Researchers likeGardner and Richardson argue instead that the brain is too plastic and complex forintelligence to be limited by the actions of a single gene chemical or concept of IQAll of this intriguing research tells us that just as in so many areas of science more time andstudy is necessary before we can hope to find a clear answer In the end the final answer to

the question of intelligence will most likely be a multi-layered vision of human potential thatcombines all of these studies in biology psychology and cultural contextTexte 3Is There a Critical Period for Learning a Foreign LanguageJune 2000by Lisa ChipongianThe Myth of Missed OpportunitiesA popular misconception regarding second-language learning is that there is a window orcritical period for learning a second language that shuts down around the onset of puberty Inhis article Is There a Child Advantage in Learning Foreign Languages Brad Marshallpoints out the harm this misconception can cause Adults may become doubtful of their abilityto learn a new language Their teachers may become skeptical too tending to plod throughtheir classes feeling there is little hope of success When it comes to learning a foreignlanguage many believe that the adult brain is in a state of shutdown relative to the childsneurological state of readinessEarly Foreign Language Instruction is Not a Magical ToolIn The Age Factor in Second Language Acquisition David Singleton concedes that in secondlanguageinstruction younger = better in the long run But this is a general rule with plentyof exceptions The exceptions include the 5 percent of adult bilinguals who master a secondlanguage even though they begin learning it when they are well into adulthood long after anycritical period has presumably come to a closeBoth research and the informal observations of those who are in daily contact with secondlanguagelearners suggest that an early start in a second language is neither a strictlynecessary nor a universally sufficient condition for the attainment of native-like proficiencyGiven the enormous variation in peoples experience of second languagesmdasheven (orespecially) in the classroommdashthis ought to be a truismAs John T Bruer author of The Myth of the First Three Years states One of the dangers oftheemphasis on critical periods is that it prompts us to pay too much attention to whenlearning occurs and too little attention to how learning might best occur Marshall agreespointing out that learning a foreign language in elementary schoolmdashwhat most researchersgenerally agree is the ideal timemdashis not a magical tool for creating perfect second-languagespeakers Timing in other words is not everythingMany assume that critical learning periods apply not only to second-language learning but toother school subjects like math and reading Such beliefs writes Bruer have raised needlessconcerns among educators For instance once a critical period is over is lost academicground irrecoverable Such concerns arise from a simplistic and over-generalized applicationof critical periods to learning The extreme view that children must learn a foreign languageearly or not at all grows out of popular images of critical periods as closing abruptly likewindows slamming shutIs There a Critical Period for Learning a Foreign Language - Page 2Foreign-Language Learning and Critical PeriodsThe question of whether or not there is a critical period for learning a foreign language is noteasily answered But there is certainly no specific age at which the window of opportunitycloses completely As with the visual system the language system consists of several featuresand is not as Singleton writes a monolith Certain features of the language system may bemore related to distinct critical periods than others According to Ellen Bialystok and KenjiHakuta authors of In Other Words The controversy over the optimal age for learning asecond language really hinges on the acquisition of a subset of possible linguistic features andfunctionsThe Grammar-Learning Window Never Completely ClosesAlthough acquiring the grammar of ones first language does seem to be subject to a criticalperiod which ends around puberty the issue of whether or not there is also a critical period forsecond-language grammar acquisition is more complex In The Myth of the First Three YearsBruer does not state that there is a critical period for second-language grammar learninginstead he claims that there may be some maturational constraints on second-languagegrammar learningBialystok and Hakuta complicate the response to whether or not there is an optimal age forsecond-language grammar acquisition even further They point out that learning somelinguistic features like tense seems to be affected by age yet other linguistic structures like

word order are resistant to any effect of the learners age In their book In Other WordsBialystok and Hakuta state that syntax remains accessible throughout life even though thecircumstances of our lives may muddy that access Overall the amazing human ability tolearn grammar they argue remains with us as long as we remain humanPhonological Acquisition Is Age-SensitiveUnlike grammar learning second-language phonological acquisition is subject to a sensitiveperiod The decline in unaccented learning of a foreign language is progressive howeverand not characterized by a predictably abrupt change According to a study by James Flegesimilar and not entirely novel sounds are the ones that are affected by age In other wordsnew sounds are easier to pronounce with native-like accuracy than sounds that are similar butnot identical to those found in ones first languageAccording to Bruer we know almost nothing about the stages within the critical period forphonological learning We do know Bruer continues that the system remains plastic andable to tune itself to a second phonologyuntil early in the second decade of lifeVocabulary Learning Has No Critical PeriodOf vocabulary acquisition in ones first language Singleton writes there is no point at whichvocabulary acquisition can be predicted to cease There is also Singleton suggests nocritical period for learning vocabulary in a second languageAccording to the results of a study by Helen Neville using brain recordings semanticinformation seems to be processed in the same way by both speakers of English as a secondlanguage and native English speakers throughout life In The Myth of the First Three YearsBruer relates this consistency in how we acquire vocabulary throughout life to brainmaturation how we process vocabulary does not change with brain maturation as one wouldexpect it would if it were a form of time-limited experience-expectant learning It seemsinstead that the neural circuitry we need to process semantic information and learn vocabularycomes on-line early in development and does not change as we matureConclusion Younger = Better in the Long RunIt may be that the image of a window slamming shut as an analogy for the effect of age onones ability to acquire a foreign language should be replaced by Bruers analogy of areservoir that gradually evaporates This analogy suggests a progressive rather than abruptdecline in ability over time Regarding critical periods in second-language acquisitionBialystok and Hakuta suggest that the difference between child and adult learners is morequantitative (or a matter of degree) than qualitative Overallthe evidence of a critical periodfor acquiring a second language is at best confusing Although the evidence argueBialystok and Hakuta indicates that the learning process is the same for both adults andchildren and that second-language learning is not necessarily subject to biological criticalperiods they do state that on average there is a continuous decline in ability with ageOlder beginners often show an initial advantage over younger beginners in learning a newlanguage however over time the younger beginners usually overtake the older beginnersThere seems then to be according to Bialystok and Hakuta a tortoise-and-the-hare effector as Singleton has put it younger = better in the long run For this reason we should by nomeans discount the importance of learning a second language early As Bruer states Thebrain and early childhood literature is correct to emphasize that second-language learning isincreasingly important and that often American schools provide too little language instructiontoo lateWhat should be questioned or re-evaluated are the underlying assumptions that side-step theissue of how best to teach foreign languages The age at which one first encounters a secondlanguage explains Singleton is only one of the many determinants of the ultimate level ofproficiency attained in that language We must not neglect other considerations includingwhat neuroscience is now telling us about how second languages might best be taught andlearnedTexte 4The Day His World Stood Stillby Joanna SchaffhausenWhen twenty-seven year old Henry M entered the hospital in 1953 for radical brain surgerythat was supposed to cure his epilepsy he was hopeful that the procedure would change hislife for the better Instead it trapped him in a mental time warp where TV is always a newinvention and Truman is forever president The removal of large sections of his temporallobes left Henry unable to form any new personal memories but his tragic loss revolutionized

the field of psychology and made HM the most-studied individual in the history of brainresearchHenry grew up outside of Hartford Connecticut and was by all accounts an amiable youngman with above average intelligence He liked to go ice skating and to listen to mystery showson the radio which he enjoyed because he could often deduce the villain ahead of theprogram detective Then on his sixteenth birthday Henry had his first grand mal seizureduring a celebratory trip to the city with his parents After that point the paralyzing seizuresarrived with increasing frequency until by the summer of 1953 he was experiencing as manyas eleven episodes per week He was unable to hold a steady job and his prospects forindependent living seemed dim There were not many effective treatments available forepilepsy in 1953 so it was with a mixture of hope and trepidation that Henrys family turnedto Dr William Scoville and his experimental surgeryThe Day His World Stood Still - Page 2The Fateful SurgeryThe idea behind the surgery was simple Seizures as Scoville correctly reasoned are causedby uncontrolled electrical impulses that start in a localized area and then spread throughoutthe rest of the brain If one could remove the part of the brain where the seizures originated itshould be possible to cure the epilepsy Henry had the most common form of the diseasecalled temporal lobe epilepsy which meant that his seizures began in the tissue located oneither side of his brain Dr Scoville removed a large chunk of Henrys right and left temporallobes which was a crucial decision because the brain is symmetrical and thus most importantstructures are duplicated Altogether Henry lost about a fist-sized portion of his brain whichencompassed (on both sides) the hippocampus the amygdala and the entorhinal andperirhinal cortices As it turns out the hippocampus is crucial for memory storage When helost his hippocampi Henry became frozen in 1953 remembering very well the events beforehis operation but unable to create any new memories He describes the experience like thisRight now Im wondering have I done or said anything amiss You see at this momenteverything looks clear to me but what happened just before Thats what worries me Its likewaking from a dream I just dont rememberWhat Henry Can Remember And What He CannotAt the time of Henrys surgery the study of memory was mostly limited to philosophicalwritings and introspective probing like the kind practiced by Sigmund Freud In the 1930sKarl Lashley began a systematic quest to find the exact location of memory in the brain Hetaught rats and monkeys a variety of tasks then destroyed a part of their brain reasoning thatif the animals could not remember after the lesion then he must have found the place wherememories reside After years of frustration Lashley concluded that nothing short of nearcomplete destruction of the brain caused the animals to forget their tasks and it seemed thatbiological study of memory was not possibleThen word began to spread of patient HM who had very localized brain damage but extremememory deficits Scientists were very interested in the precise nature of Henrys amnesia andbegan a careful study of which parts of his memory had been erased by the surgery and whichparts remained intact As noted before he had good recall of facts learned before hisoperation meaning that his long-term memory was unharmed Also Henry was able to holdinformation in storage for very short periods of time Most people can retain about sevenpieces of information (a telephone number for example) in memory for about thirty secondsand Henry scored normally on these kinds of tasks Thus his working memory (or scratchpadmemory) seemed unaffected by the loss of his hippocampus The main problem for Henrywas converting short-term memories into permanent storage a process called consolidationBased on the patterns of Henrys memory loss researchers formed the following hypothesesabout memory formation1) Short-term memories are biologically different from long-term memories because they donot require the hippocampus for formation2) Long-term memories are stored throughout the brain but the hippocampus is necessary forthe information to reach long-term storage Once the memory is permanently stored howeverthe hippocampus is no longer required Said another way the hippocampus is important forlong-term memory formation but not for memory maintenance or retrievalThis would explain why Henry can remember the events prior to his surgery but not store anynew memories afterward Even with thousands of repetitions he is unable to learn new factsHis doctors must reintroduce themselves each morning and Henry is never sure where he is

for very long Yet even as they marvel at the extent of his memory loss researchers havefound one other kind of memory task that Henry can perform normally skill learningOften termed procedural memory skill learning is a kind of unconscious memory Youmight recall your tennis lessons very well but when you hit the ball over the net there is noconscious awareness of each muscle group involved in the task Your backhand is simplyautomatic For Henry these kinds of motor skills are also automatic He does not rememberlearning them but his performance improves over time Learning to trace a star using areflection in the mirror for example is a task that most people do not do well the first timethey try it But with practice it becomes quite easy Henry shows the same kind ofimprovement on the star-tracing task even though each time he tries it he claims to havenever attempted it before Thus skill learning appears to be a special kind of long-memorythat does not require the hippocampusHenry Right NowStudy of Henrys case has led to some very seminal findings about memory Specifically itseems that the hippocampus is required for the formation of conscious long-term memoriesbut not for unconscious long-term skill memories or short-term recall Perhaps even moreimportantly Henry has vividly illustrated that there is a biological basis for memory and thatit is possible to use biological techniques to study a subject as elusive as memoryAs for Henrys current status he lives in a nursing home in Hartford and still travelsoccasionally to MIT for memory testing He enjoys doing crossword puzzles and watchingdetective shows on television His life is peaceful if not completely happy He worries oftenthat he has done something wrong and it is not possible for him to make any real friendssince he cannot remember a person from ten minutes to the next At times he seems to have asense of humor about his condition as in the following anecdote taken from his biographyMemorys Ghost The Strange Tale of Mr M and the Nature of Memory by Philip HiltsWhen walking down the corridor at MIT with Henry Dr Suzanne Corkin made the usualkind of small talk Do you know where you are HenryHenry grinned Why of course Im at MITDr Corkin was a bit surprised How do you know thatHenry laughed He pointed to a student nearby with a large MIT emblazoned on hissweatshirt Got ya that time Henry saidMainly though he leads a life of quiet confusion never knowing exactly how old he is (heguesses maybe thirty and is always surprised by his reflection in the mirror) and reliving hisgrief over the death of his mother every time he hears about it Though he does not recall hisoperation he knows that there is something wrong with his memory and has adopted aphilosophical stance on his problems It does get me upset but I always say to myself whatis to be is to be Thats the way I always figure it nowOften Henry will express the hope that others can learn from his unfortunate situation as hetold Philip Hilts in an interview several years agoWell what I keep thinking is that possibly I had an operation And somehow the memory isgoneAnd Im trying to figure it outI think of it all the time I dont remember this and whyI dont remember thatIs that worrisome Hilts wanted to knowWell it isnt worrisome in a way to me because I know that if they ever performed anoperation on me theyd learn from it It would help othersSadly the very nature of his memory loss prevents Henry from ever knowing the incrediblecontribution he has made to the field of psychology but his tale stands as an importantprologue to the ongoing story of memory research Long after Henry passes on HM willbe studied as the man whose unwitting sacrifice first vividly illustrated the important link

between memory and brain

Langue et Affaires Anglais Lecture 1 Business organization in Britain and the USA

1 Introduction What is a business - The 3 sectors of the economy - Business strategy The purpose of this lesson is to discuss the main business organizations of britain and america Brief definition of a business and give an overview of the 3 sectors of the economy

What is a business An organized effort to produce goods or services which can be supplied to satisfy the needs and wants of customers in exchange of a reward or payment which will give the producer or supplier an adequate return on his investment There are many different types of businesses Some are small local firms others are large companies make trade internationally or nationally Some may produce or sell goods whereas others provide a service Some do both such as computer stores that offer advice and maintenance to customers Some organizations are classified as businesses even though we may not think of them in this way ( football clubs or charities ) Businesses exist for a purpose A business needs funds Finance is usually the hardest thing to obtain A business needs customers and suppliers who provide many of the inputs such as raw materials Premises ex an office or a factory Management and organization A business may also need to protect its ideas or products through patents and copyright which make it illegal for other firms to copy directly the business idea or invention or by keeping new products secret until they are ready to launch by focussing on retaining key staff A business needs to have clear objectives An objective is a target that a business sets itself Difference between long and short term targets The targets must be regularly reviewed so that the business can measure its progress There are several objectives -Survive in the market -Break-even = cover costs -High motivation amongst its employees -Maximize profits -grow in size export -diversify and sell different products -Make returns to shareholders ( actionnaires ) of limited companies

2 Types of business Introduction Public sector and private sector

A) Sole tradersB) Partnerships The general partners The sleeping partners The salaried partner C) Limited companyIntroduction Definition of a limited company - Private limited companies - Public limited companies

D) FranchisingE) Types of businesses in AmericaF) Mergeers and acquisitionsG) Groups parent companies and subsidiaries H) Multinational and conglomeratesI) Blue chips

Conclusion

Subordonneacutes comparatives - un eacuteleacutement compareacute he is as gifted he is too bright- un eacuteleacutement de comparaison as Peterto fail= AS AS+ MORE THAN- LESS THANSuffisance ENOUGH TOExcegraves TOO TOExercices trouvez le type de subordonneacutees - Children who score very weel on IQ tests are often tracked into programs for the gifted(while those who do very poorly are tracked into remedial programs- There seem to be two main camps on the subject of intelligence (P1 verbe non fini infinitive)In one camp are the researchers who not only support the concept of IQ as ameasure of intelligence but also believe that there is a biological switch that governs thisintelligence such as a gene or some kind of brain chemical (P1rsquo relative restrictive)These researchers also believe that IQ and thus intelligence can be improved byexternal means such as through dietary supplements or specific learning exercises (P1 eten souligneacute P14 conjonctive)In the second camp are the researchers who reject the concept of a single definition ofintelligence and suggest instead that human intelligence is too complex a mesh of qualitieswhich cannot be measured by a single score on a single test These researchers alsobelieve that intelligence can be improved but only by incorporating a much widerdefinition of intelligence than is currently in place in our society (P1 et en souligneacute P14relative restricitive)instead that human intelligence is too complex a mesh of qualities which cannot bemeasured by a single score on a single test These researchers also believe that intelligencecan be improved but only by incorporating a much wider definition of intelligence than iscurrently in place in our society (P1 et en souligne P1rsquo conjonctive)but only by incorporating a much wider definition of intelligence than is currently in placein our society (P2 comparative)LA PHRASE COMPLEXE ETUDE FONCTIONNELE DESSUBORDONNEacuteESEtude fonctionnelle srsquointeacuteresse aux propositions subordonneacuteesFonctions syntaxiques sujetcompleacutementattributadverbialSujet althought acquiring the grammar of onersquos first language does seem to be subject to acritical periodComplement - compleacutement drsquoobjet direct I saw John- Compleacutement drsquoattribut I bought John a nice sweat- Compleacutement propositionnel its depends on John- Compleacutement drsquoadjectif she was busy typing a lettreAdverbial compleacutement circonstancielRenseigne sur la circonstance du procegraves lieu temps maniegraverehellipLes conjonctions ont une valeur seacutemantique propreTEMPS After before since until when while as soon as onceLIEU Where whereverCONDITIONNELLE If unless provided that so long as on condition thatCONCESSIVE Thought althought while whereas even if if whenCAUSE Because since as v-ingBUT To so as to in order to so that on order thatCONSEQUENCE So thatCOMPARAISON As if as thoughtANGLAIS L3 COURS 7 (question sur le texte de Schaffausen)a he was living on his ownb b he was paralysedc He experienced ans attack characterised by less of consciousness muscles spamsans rigiding (definition de lrsquoeacutepilepsie)According to DR Scaville epilepsy is due to a the morphological asymetry of the hemispheres

b electrical impulses located in the hippocampus areasc electrical impulses spreading throughout the whole brainThe hippocampus the amygdala and the entorhinal and perihinal cortices are situateda in the cortexb in both temporal lobesc in the brainstemHow can you explain the plural laquo hippocampi raquo in laquo when he lost his hippocampi Henrybecame frozen in 1953 raquo (le pluriel de lrsquohippocampe)Lashleyrsquos experiments carried out on animalsa fit in with the precise nature of henryrsquoa amnesiab led him to conclude that biological study of memory is impossiblec prove that rats and monkeys behave differentlyHenryrsquos amnesia due to his surgery enabled researchers ti uderstand the role of hippocampusa in short-term memoryb in long-term memoryc in procedural memoryd in long-term memory formationHM can no longera play tennisb store new pieces of informationsc remember events prior to 1753d retain about seven pieces of information for about thirty secondsHenryrsquos case allows researchers to hypothesize that the hippocampus isunnecessary for the formation of long term memoriesnecessary for unconscious long-term skill memoriesrequired for the formation of short-term memoriesrequired for consolidationToday henry likeslistening to mystery showsgoing ice-skatingwatching detective showsdoing puzzlesMemory was largely studied befoe henryrsquos operation true or falseHenryrsquos case is now confirmed by other simular cases true or falseHenry has got lany friends true or falseHe can now live on his own true or falseSCRIPT AUDIOKey word mental illness procedure ice pick lobotomy emotionOn january 17 1946 psychobiologist nomed Freeman launched a radical new era in thetratment of mental illness in the countrySCRIPT 2 si vous voulez eacutecouter le texte crsquoest lagrave httpwwwbrainconnectioncomtopicsmain=fahm-memoryHoward dullyrsquos storya How did he go to Washington by flyb where did he go in Washington GW universityc What did he want to see my filesd What did he love to do e What did he find in his file f What was he must interested by g What did he want to understand h How did was he i Who want to see Dr Freeman j What happened to Howard lsquos nother How old was he then k What about the relationships between his stepmother (megravere adoptive) and him l What did his stepmother want H Dully srsquoest fait opeacuterer par Freeman et veut comprendre ce qursquoil srsquoest passeacute il va doncchercher son dossier meacutedicalm how did Howard read when Freeman explained ti him what had happenedn What did her stepmother decide to do Why

o Can you explain the term laquo word of the stock raquo (pupille de la nation)p What questions have haunted thoward q Did Howard dare to speak to his father r What happened to his stepmother s What did Howard decide to do t What couldnrsquot howard believe Toutes les reacuteponses sont dans le texte ndeg4Voca Deserve meacuteriterPaper-route ditribution de magazines dans les boicirctes aux lettresMake it stick soyez ferme Thrust enfonceacuteQuiver freacutemirPathways route qui relie un endroit agrave un autreSever couper = out offTexte 1This target article discusses the verbal working memory system used in sentencecomprehension We review the idea of working memory as a short duration system in whichsmall amounts of information are simultaneously stored and manipulated in the service of atask and that syntactic processing in sentence comprehension requires such a storage andcomputational system We inquire whether the working memory system used in syntacticprocessing is the same as that used in verbally mediated tasks involving conscious controlledprocessing Various forms of evidence are considered the relationship between individualdifferences in working memory and individual differences in the efficiency of syntacticprocessing the effect of concurrent verbal memory load on syntactic processing andsyntactic processing in patients with poor short term memory poor working memory oraphasia The experimental results suggest that the verbal working memory system specializedfor assigning the syntactic structure of a sentence and for using that structure in determiningsentence meaning is distinct from the working memory system that underlies the use ofsentence meaning to accomplish further functions We present a theory of the components ofthe verbal working memory system and suggestions as to its neural basis

Texte 2IQ tests are traditionally viewed as a quantitative measure of a persons intelligenceChildren who score very well on IQ tests are often tracked into programs for the giftedwhile those who do very poorly are tracked into remedial programs Despite theirprevalence the true meaning and import of IQ tests are subjects of some controversy in thefields of education psychology and neuroscienceOver the past year the subjects of intelligence a possible biological basis for intelligence andways to improve intelligence have all received a significant amount of media attention Thisarticle is a short review of some of these studiesThere seem to be two main camps on the subject of intelligence In one camp are theresearchers who not only support the concept of IQ as a measure of intelligence but alsobelieve that there is a biological switch that governs this intelligence such as a gene or somekind of brain chemical These researchers also believe that IQ and thus intelligence can beimproved by external means such as through dietary supplements or specific learningexercisesIn the second camp are the researchers who reject the concept of a single definition ofintelligence and suggest instead that human intelligence is too complex a mesh of qualitieswhich cannot be measured by a single score on a single test These researchers also believethat intelligence can be improved but only by incorporating a much wider definition ofintelligence than is currently in place in our societyLets start with some of the studies that fall into the first camp of opinion on IQ as a measureof intelligenceIn July 1999 researchers at the University of New Mexico announced a study linking levelsof two brain chemicals to performance on IQ testsWilliam Brooks and his colleagues used brain-imaging techniques to measure levels ofcholine and N-acetylasparate (NAA) in the brains of 26 healthy volunteersThe researchers found that people with low levels of choline and high levels of NAA tended

to have the higher scores on IQ tests The researchers suggested that a manipulation of thelevels of these brain chemicals such as with dietary supplements could increase IQ scoresMethods for increasing IQ scores abound in the press and are also the focus of a number ofacademic articlesThe well discussed and much publicized Mozart effect stems from a Wisconsin study thatsuggests that listening to Mozart boosts IQ Although a number of later studies suggest thatthe effect may not be as powerful as originally thought many preschools have institutedprograms such as Mozart hour to give their students the musics perceived benefitsPopular dietary supplements such as gingko biloba and phosphatidylserine are advertised asbrain enhancement products that improve mental functions such as problem solving andmemory although there is very little scientific evidence to support these claims There is evena firm out of Beverly Hills that offers a product called Brain Gum Their promise for theproduct is encapsulated in their phone number 1-888 IQ BOOSTIn the field of child development Linda Acredolo a psychology professor at the University ofCalifornia Davis has found that babies who are taught sign language starting at the age of 11months tend to have higher average IQs when they reach second grade than their peers whowere not taught sign language (scores were 114 for the sign language proficient 102 for thenon-signers)Behavioral experimentation on mice is a traditional tool for the study of gene manipulation onintelligence Last September researchers at Princeton reported that genetically engineeredmice that over-express a particular form of the brain protein called the NMDA receptorperform better at a number of behavioral tasks than normal mice The researchers suggest thatthis receptor could be a target for treating learning and memory disorders-this creation of amouse that performs well on memory tasks has been described as a possible first step inmaking human beings smarterOne question should be considered Does performance on IQ tests really tell us somethingconcrete about a persons intelligence This leads us to the second camp of researchers-thosewho argue that traditional IQ tests do not tell the whole storyHoward Gardner a professor of education at Harvard University proposes the theory ofmultiple intelligences in which there are at least eight different types of intelligence all ofwhich must be taken into account when establishing a vision of a persons abilities andpotentialMichael Howe a psychology professor at Exeter University has spent ten years studying thedevelopment of high achievers such as Mozart Michael Faraday and Isaac Newton In hisbook Genius Explained Howe argues that most geniuses dont have some ineffable qualitythat promotes their intelligence above that of the general population He argues that whatdistinguished these admittedly remarkable people was incredible persistence and devotion totheir particular field of interest Howe believes that sheer intelligence as measured by an IQtest wont automatically lead to success without the added qualities of determination andperseveranceAnother researcher Dr Ken Richardson also argues that the idea of an IQ score is too strictof a limit on the definition of intelligence In his book The Making of Intelligence he suggeststhat the idea of a single cause or kind of intelligence is not supported by our ever-increasingunderstanding of the mind and its functions His main idea is that intelligence is not a staticthing that is coded for us by our genes but is instead a result of a dynamic interaction betweenthe mental process with which we represent the world and the culture in which we liveAccording to Dr Richardson society has as much an influence on our intelligence as do ourgenesThomas Edisons famous definition of genius as 99 perspiration and 1 inspiration suggeststhat intelligence is as much a product of nurture as it is of nature However it is the questionof the origin of that mysterious 1 that fuels much of the interest in IQ scores memoryenhancing drugs and mind-boosting music Research results from the smart mouse andfrom the New Mexico study on brain chemical levels suggest that there may in fact be abiological quality be it gene or chemical that is the seat of that extra brain power that detailsthe difference between smart and not-smart gifted and remedial Researchers likeGardner and Richardson argue instead that the brain is too plastic and complex forintelligence to be limited by the actions of a single gene chemical or concept of IQAll of this intriguing research tells us that just as in so many areas of science more time andstudy is necessary before we can hope to find a clear answer In the end the final answer to

the question of intelligence will most likely be a multi-layered vision of human potential thatcombines all of these studies in biology psychology and cultural contextTexte 3Is There a Critical Period for Learning a Foreign LanguageJune 2000by Lisa ChipongianThe Myth of Missed OpportunitiesA popular misconception regarding second-language learning is that there is a window orcritical period for learning a second language that shuts down around the onset of puberty Inhis article Is There a Child Advantage in Learning Foreign Languages Brad Marshallpoints out the harm this misconception can cause Adults may become doubtful of their abilityto learn a new language Their teachers may become skeptical too tending to plod throughtheir classes feeling there is little hope of success When it comes to learning a foreignlanguage many believe that the adult brain is in a state of shutdown relative to the childsneurological state of readinessEarly Foreign Language Instruction is Not a Magical ToolIn The Age Factor in Second Language Acquisition David Singleton concedes that in secondlanguageinstruction younger = better in the long run But this is a general rule with plentyof exceptions The exceptions include the 5 percent of adult bilinguals who master a secondlanguage even though they begin learning it when they are well into adulthood long after anycritical period has presumably come to a closeBoth research and the informal observations of those who are in daily contact with secondlanguagelearners suggest that an early start in a second language is neither a strictlynecessary nor a universally sufficient condition for the attainment of native-like proficiencyGiven the enormous variation in peoples experience of second languagesmdasheven (orespecially) in the classroommdashthis ought to be a truismAs John T Bruer author of The Myth of the First Three Years states One of the dangers oftheemphasis on critical periods is that it prompts us to pay too much attention to whenlearning occurs and too little attention to how learning might best occur Marshall agreespointing out that learning a foreign language in elementary schoolmdashwhat most researchersgenerally agree is the ideal timemdashis not a magical tool for creating perfect second-languagespeakers Timing in other words is not everythingMany assume that critical learning periods apply not only to second-language learning but toother school subjects like math and reading Such beliefs writes Bruer have raised needlessconcerns among educators For instance once a critical period is over is lost academicground irrecoverable Such concerns arise from a simplistic and over-generalized applicationof critical periods to learning The extreme view that children must learn a foreign languageearly or not at all grows out of popular images of critical periods as closing abruptly likewindows slamming shutIs There a Critical Period for Learning a Foreign Language - Page 2Foreign-Language Learning and Critical PeriodsThe question of whether or not there is a critical period for learning a foreign language is noteasily answered But there is certainly no specific age at which the window of opportunitycloses completely As with the visual system the language system consists of several featuresand is not as Singleton writes a monolith Certain features of the language system may bemore related to distinct critical periods than others According to Ellen Bialystok and KenjiHakuta authors of In Other Words The controversy over the optimal age for learning asecond language really hinges on the acquisition of a subset of possible linguistic features andfunctionsThe Grammar-Learning Window Never Completely ClosesAlthough acquiring the grammar of ones first language does seem to be subject to a criticalperiod which ends around puberty the issue of whether or not there is also a critical period forsecond-language grammar acquisition is more complex In The Myth of the First Three YearsBruer does not state that there is a critical period for second-language grammar learninginstead he claims that there may be some maturational constraints on second-languagegrammar learningBialystok and Hakuta complicate the response to whether or not there is an optimal age forsecond-language grammar acquisition even further They point out that learning somelinguistic features like tense seems to be affected by age yet other linguistic structures like

word order are resistant to any effect of the learners age In their book In Other WordsBialystok and Hakuta state that syntax remains accessible throughout life even though thecircumstances of our lives may muddy that access Overall the amazing human ability tolearn grammar they argue remains with us as long as we remain humanPhonological Acquisition Is Age-SensitiveUnlike grammar learning second-language phonological acquisition is subject to a sensitiveperiod The decline in unaccented learning of a foreign language is progressive howeverand not characterized by a predictably abrupt change According to a study by James Flegesimilar and not entirely novel sounds are the ones that are affected by age In other wordsnew sounds are easier to pronounce with native-like accuracy than sounds that are similar butnot identical to those found in ones first languageAccording to Bruer we know almost nothing about the stages within the critical period forphonological learning We do know Bruer continues that the system remains plastic andable to tune itself to a second phonologyuntil early in the second decade of lifeVocabulary Learning Has No Critical PeriodOf vocabulary acquisition in ones first language Singleton writes there is no point at whichvocabulary acquisition can be predicted to cease There is also Singleton suggests nocritical period for learning vocabulary in a second languageAccording to the results of a study by Helen Neville using brain recordings semanticinformation seems to be processed in the same way by both speakers of English as a secondlanguage and native English speakers throughout life In The Myth of the First Three YearsBruer relates this consistency in how we acquire vocabulary throughout life to brainmaturation how we process vocabulary does not change with brain maturation as one wouldexpect it would if it were a form of time-limited experience-expectant learning It seemsinstead that the neural circuitry we need to process semantic information and learn vocabularycomes on-line early in development and does not change as we matureConclusion Younger = Better in the Long RunIt may be that the image of a window slamming shut as an analogy for the effect of age onones ability to acquire a foreign language should be replaced by Bruers analogy of areservoir that gradually evaporates This analogy suggests a progressive rather than abruptdecline in ability over time Regarding critical periods in second-language acquisitionBialystok and Hakuta suggest that the difference between child and adult learners is morequantitative (or a matter of degree) than qualitative Overallthe evidence of a critical periodfor acquiring a second language is at best confusing Although the evidence argueBialystok and Hakuta indicates that the learning process is the same for both adults andchildren and that second-language learning is not necessarily subject to biological criticalperiods they do state that on average there is a continuous decline in ability with ageOlder beginners often show an initial advantage over younger beginners in learning a newlanguage however over time the younger beginners usually overtake the older beginnersThere seems then to be according to Bialystok and Hakuta a tortoise-and-the-hare effector as Singleton has put it younger = better in the long run For this reason we should by nomeans discount the importance of learning a second language early As Bruer states Thebrain and early childhood literature is correct to emphasize that second-language learning isincreasingly important and that often American schools provide too little language instructiontoo lateWhat should be questioned or re-evaluated are the underlying assumptions that side-step theissue of how best to teach foreign languages The age at which one first encounters a secondlanguage explains Singleton is only one of the many determinants of the ultimate level ofproficiency attained in that language We must not neglect other considerations includingwhat neuroscience is now telling us about how second languages might best be taught andlearnedTexte 4The Day His World Stood Stillby Joanna SchaffhausenWhen twenty-seven year old Henry M entered the hospital in 1953 for radical brain surgerythat was supposed to cure his epilepsy he was hopeful that the procedure would change hislife for the better Instead it trapped him in a mental time warp where TV is always a newinvention and Truman is forever president The removal of large sections of his temporallobes left Henry unable to form any new personal memories but his tragic loss revolutionized

the field of psychology and made HM the most-studied individual in the history of brainresearchHenry grew up outside of Hartford Connecticut and was by all accounts an amiable youngman with above average intelligence He liked to go ice skating and to listen to mystery showson the radio which he enjoyed because he could often deduce the villain ahead of theprogram detective Then on his sixteenth birthday Henry had his first grand mal seizureduring a celebratory trip to the city with his parents After that point the paralyzing seizuresarrived with increasing frequency until by the summer of 1953 he was experiencing as manyas eleven episodes per week He was unable to hold a steady job and his prospects forindependent living seemed dim There were not many effective treatments available forepilepsy in 1953 so it was with a mixture of hope and trepidation that Henrys family turnedto Dr William Scoville and his experimental surgeryThe Day His World Stood Still - Page 2The Fateful SurgeryThe idea behind the surgery was simple Seizures as Scoville correctly reasoned are causedby uncontrolled electrical impulses that start in a localized area and then spread throughoutthe rest of the brain If one could remove the part of the brain where the seizures originated itshould be possible to cure the epilepsy Henry had the most common form of the diseasecalled temporal lobe epilepsy which meant that his seizures began in the tissue located oneither side of his brain Dr Scoville removed a large chunk of Henrys right and left temporallobes which was a crucial decision because the brain is symmetrical and thus most importantstructures are duplicated Altogether Henry lost about a fist-sized portion of his brain whichencompassed (on both sides) the hippocampus the amygdala and the entorhinal andperirhinal cortices As it turns out the hippocampus is crucial for memory storage When helost his hippocampi Henry became frozen in 1953 remembering very well the events beforehis operation but unable to create any new memories He describes the experience like thisRight now Im wondering have I done or said anything amiss You see at this momenteverything looks clear to me but what happened just before Thats what worries me Its likewaking from a dream I just dont rememberWhat Henry Can Remember And What He CannotAt the time of Henrys surgery the study of memory was mostly limited to philosophicalwritings and introspective probing like the kind practiced by Sigmund Freud In the 1930sKarl Lashley began a systematic quest to find the exact location of memory in the brain Hetaught rats and monkeys a variety of tasks then destroyed a part of their brain reasoning thatif the animals could not remember after the lesion then he must have found the place wherememories reside After years of frustration Lashley concluded that nothing short of nearcomplete destruction of the brain caused the animals to forget their tasks and it seemed thatbiological study of memory was not possibleThen word began to spread of patient HM who had very localized brain damage but extremememory deficits Scientists were very interested in the precise nature of Henrys amnesia andbegan a careful study of which parts of his memory had been erased by the surgery and whichparts remained intact As noted before he had good recall of facts learned before hisoperation meaning that his long-term memory was unharmed Also Henry was able to holdinformation in storage for very short periods of time Most people can retain about sevenpieces of information (a telephone number for example) in memory for about thirty secondsand Henry scored normally on these kinds of tasks Thus his working memory (or scratchpadmemory) seemed unaffected by the loss of his hippocampus The main problem for Henrywas converting short-term memories into permanent storage a process called consolidationBased on the patterns of Henrys memory loss researchers formed the following hypothesesabout memory formation1) Short-term memories are biologically different from long-term memories because they donot require the hippocampus for formation2) Long-term memories are stored throughout the brain but the hippocampus is necessary forthe information to reach long-term storage Once the memory is permanently stored howeverthe hippocampus is no longer required Said another way the hippocampus is important forlong-term memory formation but not for memory maintenance or retrievalThis would explain why Henry can remember the events prior to his surgery but not store anynew memories afterward Even with thousands of repetitions he is unable to learn new factsHis doctors must reintroduce themselves each morning and Henry is never sure where he is

for very long Yet even as they marvel at the extent of his memory loss researchers havefound one other kind of memory task that Henry can perform normally skill learningOften termed procedural memory skill learning is a kind of unconscious memory Youmight recall your tennis lessons very well but when you hit the ball over the net there is noconscious awareness of each muscle group involved in the task Your backhand is simplyautomatic For Henry these kinds of motor skills are also automatic He does not rememberlearning them but his performance improves over time Learning to trace a star using areflection in the mirror for example is a task that most people do not do well the first timethey try it But with practice it becomes quite easy Henry shows the same kind ofimprovement on the star-tracing task even though each time he tries it he claims to havenever attempted it before Thus skill learning appears to be a special kind of long-memorythat does not require the hippocampusHenry Right NowStudy of Henrys case has led to some very seminal findings about memory Specifically itseems that the hippocampus is required for the formation of conscious long-term memoriesbut not for unconscious long-term skill memories or short-term recall Perhaps even moreimportantly Henry has vividly illustrated that there is a biological basis for memory and thatit is possible to use biological techniques to study a subject as elusive as memoryAs for Henrys current status he lives in a nursing home in Hartford and still travelsoccasionally to MIT for memory testing He enjoys doing crossword puzzles and watchingdetective shows on television His life is peaceful if not completely happy He worries oftenthat he has done something wrong and it is not possible for him to make any real friendssince he cannot remember a person from ten minutes to the next At times he seems to have asense of humor about his condition as in the following anecdote taken from his biographyMemorys Ghost The Strange Tale of Mr M and the Nature of Memory by Philip HiltsWhen walking down the corridor at MIT with Henry Dr Suzanne Corkin made the usualkind of small talk Do you know where you are HenryHenry grinned Why of course Im at MITDr Corkin was a bit surprised How do you know thatHenry laughed He pointed to a student nearby with a large MIT emblazoned on hissweatshirt Got ya that time Henry saidMainly though he leads a life of quiet confusion never knowing exactly how old he is (heguesses maybe thirty and is always surprised by his reflection in the mirror) and reliving hisgrief over the death of his mother every time he hears about it Though he does not recall hisoperation he knows that there is something wrong with his memory and has adopted aphilosophical stance on his problems It does get me upset but I always say to myself whatis to be is to be Thats the way I always figure it nowOften Henry will express the hope that others can learn from his unfortunate situation as hetold Philip Hilts in an interview several years agoWell what I keep thinking is that possibly I had an operation And somehow the memory isgoneAnd Im trying to figure it outI think of it all the time I dont remember this and whyI dont remember thatIs that worrisome Hilts wanted to knowWell it isnt worrisome in a way to me because I know that if they ever performed anoperation on me theyd learn from it It would help othersSadly the very nature of his memory loss prevents Henry from ever knowing the incrediblecontribution he has made to the field of psychology but his tale stands as an importantprologue to the ongoing story of memory research Long after Henry passes on HM willbe studied as the man whose unwitting sacrifice first vividly illustrated the important link

between memory and brain

Langue et Affaires Anglais Lecture 1 Business organization in Britain and the USA

1 Introduction What is a business - The 3 sectors of the economy - Business strategy The purpose of this lesson is to discuss the main business organizations of britain and america Brief definition of a business and give an overview of the 3 sectors of the economy

What is a business An organized effort to produce goods or services which can be supplied to satisfy the needs and wants of customers in exchange of a reward or payment which will give the producer or supplier an adequate return on his investment There are many different types of businesses Some are small local firms others are large companies make trade internationally or nationally Some may produce or sell goods whereas others provide a service Some do both such as computer stores that offer advice and maintenance to customers Some organizations are classified as businesses even though we may not think of them in this way ( football clubs or charities ) Businesses exist for a purpose A business needs funds Finance is usually the hardest thing to obtain A business needs customers and suppliers who provide many of the inputs such as raw materials Premises ex an office or a factory Management and organization A business may also need to protect its ideas or products through patents and copyright which make it illegal for other firms to copy directly the business idea or invention or by keeping new products secret until they are ready to launch by focussing on retaining key staff A business needs to have clear objectives An objective is a target that a business sets itself Difference between long and short term targets The targets must be regularly reviewed so that the business can measure its progress There are several objectives -Survive in the market -Break-even = cover costs -High motivation amongst its employees -Maximize profits -grow in size export -diversify and sell different products -Make returns to shareholders ( actionnaires ) of limited companies

2 Types of business Introduction Public sector and private sector

A) Sole tradersB) Partnerships The general partners The sleeping partners The salaried partner C) Limited companyIntroduction Definition of a limited company - Private limited companies - Public limited companies

D) FranchisingE) Types of businesses in AmericaF) Mergeers and acquisitionsG) Groups parent companies and subsidiaries H) Multinational and conglomeratesI) Blue chips

Conclusion

b electrical impulses located in the hippocampus areasc electrical impulses spreading throughout the whole brainThe hippocampus the amygdala and the entorhinal and perihinal cortices are situateda in the cortexb in both temporal lobesc in the brainstemHow can you explain the plural laquo hippocampi raquo in laquo when he lost his hippocampi Henrybecame frozen in 1953 raquo (le pluriel de lrsquohippocampe)Lashleyrsquos experiments carried out on animalsa fit in with the precise nature of henryrsquoa amnesiab led him to conclude that biological study of memory is impossiblec prove that rats and monkeys behave differentlyHenryrsquos amnesia due to his surgery enabled researchers ti uderstand the role of hippocampusa in short-term memoryb in long-term memoryc in procedural memoryd in long-term memory formationHM can no longera play tennisb store new pieces of informationsc remember events prior to 1753d retain about seven pieces of information for about thirty secondsHenryrsquos case allows researchers to hypothesize that the hippocampus isunnecessary for the formation of long term memoriesnecessary for unconscious long-term skill memoriesrequired for the formation of short-term memoriesrequired for consolidationToday henry likeslistening to mystery showsgoing ice-skatingwatching detective showsdoing puzzlesMemory was largely studied befoe henryrsquos operation true or falseHenryrsquos case is now confirmed by other simular cases true or falseHenry has got lany friends true or falseHe can now live on his own true or falseSCRIPT AUDIOKey word mental illness procedure ice pick lobotomy emotionOn january 17 1946 psychobiologist nomed Freeman launched a radical new era in thetratment of mental illness in the countrySCRIPT 2 si vous voulez eacutecouter le texte crsquoest lagrave httpwwwbrainconnectioncomtopicsmain=fahm-memoryHoward dullyrsquos storya How did he go to Washington by flyb where did he go in Washington GW universityc What did he want to see my filesd What did he love to do e What did he find in his file f What was he must interested by g What did he want to understand h How did was he i Who want to see Dr Freeman j What happened to Howard lsquos nother How old was he then k What about the relationships between his stepmother (megravere adoptive) and him l What did his stepmother want H Dully srsquoest fait opeacuterer par Freeman et veut comprendre ce qursquoil srsquoest passeacute il va doncchercher son dossier meacutedicalm how did Howard read when Freeman explained ti him what had happenedn What did her stepmother decide to do Why

o Can you explain the term laquo word of the stock raquo (pupille de la nation)p What questions have haunted thoward q Did Howard dare to speak to his father r What happened to his stepmother s What did Howard decide to do t What couldnrsquot howard believe Toutes les reacuteponses sont dans le texte ndeg4Voca Deserve meacuteriterPaper-route ditribution de magazines dans les boicirctes aux lettresMake it stick soyez ferme Thrust enfonceacuteQuiver freacutemirPathways route qui relie un endroit agrave un autreSever couper = out offTexte 1This target article discusses the verbal working memory system used in sentencecomprehension We review the idea of working memory as a short duration system in whichsmall amounts of information are simultaneously stored and manipulated in the service of atask and that syntactic processing in sentence comprehension requires such a storage andcomputational system We inquire whether the working memory system used in syntacticprocessing is the same as that used in verbally mediated tasks involving conscious controlledprocessing Various forms of evidence are considered the relationship between individualdifferences in working memory and individual differences in the efficiency of syntacticprocessing the effect of concurrent verbal memory load on syntactic processing andsyntactic processing in patients with poor short term memory poor working memory oraphasia The experimental results suggest that the verbal working memory system specializedfor assigning the syntactic structure of a sentence and for using that structure in determiningsentence meaning is distinct from the working memory system that underlies the use ofsentence meaning to accomplish further functions We present a theory of the components ofthe verbal working memory system and suggestions as to its neural basis

Texte 2IQ tests are traditionally viewed as a quantitative measure of a persons intelligenceChildren who score very well on IQ tests are often tracked into programs for the giftedwhile those who do very poorly are tracked into remedial programs Despite theirprevalence the true meaning and import of IQ tests are subjects of some controversy in thefields of education psychology and neuroscienceOver the past year the subjects of intelligence a possible biological basis for intelligence andways to improve intelligence have all received a significant amount of media attention Thisarticle is a short review of some of these studiesThere seem to be two main camps on the subject of intelligence In one camp are theresearchers who not only support the concept of IQ as a measure of intelligence but alsobelieve that there is a biological switch that governs this intelligence such as a gene or somekind of brain chemical These researchers also believe that IQ and thus intelligence can beimproved by external means such as through dietary supplements or specific learningexercisesIn the second camp are the researchers who reject the concept of a single definition ofintelligence and suggest instead that human intelligence is too complex a mesh of qualitieswhich cannot be measured by a single score on a single test These researchers also believethat intelligence can be improved but only by incorporating a much wider definition ofintelligence than is currently in place in our societyLets start with some of the studies that fall into the first camp of opinion on IQ as a measureof intelligenceIn July 1999 researchers at the University of New Mexico announced a study linking levelsof two brain chemicals to performance on IQ testsWilliam Brooks and his colleagues used brain-imaging techniques to measure levels ofcholine and N-acetylasparate (NAA) in the brains of 26 healthy volunteersThe researchers found that people with low levels of choline and high levels of NAA tended

to have the higher scores on IQ tests The researchers suggested that a manipulation of thelevels of these brain chemicals such as with dietary supplements could increase IQ scoresMethods for increasing IQ scores abound in the press and are also the focus of a number ofacademic articlesThe well discussed and much publicized Mozart effect stems from a Wisconsin study thatsuggests that listening to Mozart boosts IQ Although a number of later studies suggest thatthe effect may not be as powerful as originally thought many preschools have institutedprograms such as Mozart hour to give their students the musics perceived benefitsPopular dietary supplements such as gingko biloba and phosphatidylserine are advertised asbrain enhancement products that improve mental functions such as problem solving andmemory although there is very little scientific evidence to support these claims There is evena firm out of Beverly Hills that offers a product called Brain Gum Their promise for theproduct is encapsulated in their phone number 1-888 IQ BOOSTIn the field of child development Linda Acredolo a psychology professor at the University ofCalifornia Davis has found that babies who are taught sign language starting at the age of 11months tend to have higher average IQs when they reach second grade than their peers whowere not taught sign language (scores were 114 for the sign language proficient 102 for thenon-signers)Behavioral experimentation on mice is a traditional tool for the study of gene manipulation onintelligence Last September researchers at Princeton reported that genetically engineeredmice that over-express a particular form of the brain protein called the NMDA receptorperform better at a number of behavioral tasks than normal mice The researchers suggest thatthis receptor could be a target for treating learning and memory disorders-this creation of amouse that performs well on memory tasks has been described as a possible first step inmaking human beings smarterOne question should be considered Does performance on IQ tests really tell us somethingconcrete about a persons intelligence This leads us to the second camp of researchers-thosewho argue that traditional IQ tests do not tell the whole storyHoward Gardner a professor of education at Harvard University proposes the theory ofmultiple intelligences in which there are at least eight different types of intelligence all ofwhich must be taken into account when establishing a vision of a persons abilities andpotentialMichael Howe a psychology professor at Exeter University has spent ten years studying thedevelopment of high achievers such as Mozart Michael Faraday and Isaac Newton In hisbook Genius Explained Howe argues that most geniuses dont have some ineffable qualitythat promotes their intelligence above that of the general population He argues that whatdistinguished these admittedly remarkable people was incredible persistence and devotion totheir particular field of interest Howe believes that sheer intelligence as measured by an IQtest wont automatically lead to success without the added qualities of determination andperseveranceAnother researcher Dr Ken Richardson also argues that the idea of an IQ score is too strictof a limit on the definition of intelligence In his book The Making of Intelligence he suggeststhat the idea of a single cause or kind of intelligence is not supported by our ever-increasingunderstanding of the mind and its functions His main idea is that intelligence is not a staticthing that is coded for us by our genes but is instead a result of a dynamic interaction betweenthe mental process with which we represent the world and the culture in which we liveAccording to Dr Richardson society has as much an influence on our intelligence as do ourgenesThomas Edisons famous definition of genius as 99 perspiration and 1 inspiration suggeststhat intelligence is as much a product of nurture as it is of nature However it is the questionof the origin of that mysterious 1 that fuels much of the interest in IQ scores memoryenhancing drugs and mind-boosting music Research results from the smart mouse andfrom the New Mexico study on brain chemical levels suggest that there may in fact be abiological quality be it gene or chemical that is the seat of that extra brain power that detailsthe difference between smart and not-smart gifted and remedial Researchers likeGardner and Richardson argue instead that the brain is too plastic and complex forintelligence to be limited by the actions of a single gene chemical or concept of IQAll of this intriguing research tells us that just as in so many areas of science more time andstudy is necessary before we can hope to find a clear answer In the end the final answer to

the question of intelligence will most likely be a multi-layered vision of human potential thatcombines all of these studies in biology psychology and cultural contextTexte 3Is There a Critical Period for Learning a Foreign LanguageJune 2000by Lisa ChipongianThe Myth of Missed OpportunitiesA popular misconception regarding second-language learning is that there is a window orcritical period for learning a second language that shuts down around the onset of puberty Inhis article Is There a Child Advantage in Learning Foreign Languages Brad Marshallpoints out the harm this misconception can cause Adults may become doubtful of their abilityto learn a new language Their teachers may become skeptical too tending to plod throughtheir classes feeling there is little hope of success When it comes to learning a foreignlanguage many believe that the adult brain is in a state of shutdown relative to the childsneurological state of readinessEarly Foreign Language Instruction is Not a Magical ToolIn The Age Factor in Second Language Acquisition David Singleton concedes that in secondlanguageinstruction younger = better in the long run But this is a general rule with plentyof exceptions The exceptions include the 5 percent of adult bilinguals who master a secondlanguage even though they begin learning it when they are well into adulthood long after anycritical period has presumably come to a closeBoth research and the informal observations of those who are in daily contact with secondlanguagelearners suggest that an early start in a second language is neither a strictlynecessary nor a universally sufficient condition for the attainment of native-like proficiencyGiven the enormous variation in peoples experience of second languagesmdasheven (orespecially) in the classroommdashthis ought to be a truismAs John T Bruer author of The Myth of the First Three Years states One of the dangers oftheemphasis on critical periods is that it prompts us to pay too much attention to whenlearning occurs and too little attention to how learning might best occur Marshall agreespointing out that learning a foreign language in elementary schoolmdashwhat most researchersgenerally agree is the ideal timemdashis not a magical tool for creating perfect second-languagespeakers Timing in other words is not everythingMany assume that critical learning periods apply not only to second-language learning but toother school subjects like math and reading Such beliefs writes Bruer have raised needlessconcerns among educators For instance once a critical period is over is lost academicground irrecoverable Such concerns arise from a simplistic and over-generalized applicationof critical periods to learning The extreme view that children must learn a foreign languageearly or not at all grows out of popular images of critical periods as closing abruptly likewindows slamming shutIs There a Critical Period for Learning a Foreign Language - Page 2Foreign-Language Learning and Critical PeriodsThe question of whether or not there is a critical period for learning a foreign language is noteasily answered But there is certainly no specific age at which the window of opportunitycloses completely As with the visual system the language system consists of several featuresand is not as Singleton writes a monolith Certain features of the language system may bemore related to distinct critical periods than others According to Ellen Bialystok and KenjiHakuta authors of In Other Words The controversy over the optimal age for learning asecond language really hinges on the acquisition of a subset of possible linguistic features andfunctionsThe Grammar-Learning Window Never Completely ClosesAlthough acquiring the grammar of ones first language does seem to be subject to a criticalperiod which ends around puberty the issue of whether or not there is also a critical period forsecond-language grammar acquisition is more complex In The Myth of the First Three YearsBruer does not state that there is a critical period for second-language grammar learninginstead he claims that there may be some maturational constraints on second-languagegrammar learningBialystok and Hakuta complicate the response to whether or not there is an optimal age forsecond-language grammar acquisition even further They point out that learning somelinguistic features like tense seems to be affected by age yet other linguistic structures like

word order are resistant to any effect of the learners age In their book In Other WordsBialystok and Hakuta state that syntax remains accessible throughout life even though thecircumstances of our lives may muddy that access Overall the amazing human ability tolearn grammar they argue remains with us as long as we remain humanPhonological Acquisition Is Age-SensitiveUnlike grammar learning second-language phonological acquisition is subject to a sensitiveperiod The decline in unaccented learning of a foreign language is progressive howeverand not characterized by a predictably abrupt change According to a study by James Flegesimilar and not entirely novel sounds are the ones that are affected by age In other wordsnew sounds are easier to pronounce with native-like accuracy than sounds that are similar butnot identical to those found in ones first languageAccording to Bruer we know almost nothing about the stages within the critical period forphonological learning We do know Bruer continues that the system remains plastic andable to tune itself to a second phonologyuntil early in the second decade of lifeVocabulary Learning Has No Critical PeriodOf vocabulary acquisition in ones first language Singleton writes there is no point at whichvocabulary acquisition can be predicted to cease There is also Singleton suggests nocritical period for learning vocabulary in a second languageAccording to the results of a study by Helen Neville using brain recordings semanticinformation seems to be processed in the same way by both speakers of English as a secondlanguage and native English speakers throughout life In The Myth of the First Three YearsBruer relates this consistency in how we acquire vocabulary throughout life to brainmaturation how we process vocabulary does not change with brain maturation as one wouldexpect it would if it were a form of time-limited experience-expectant learning It seemsinstead that the neural circuitry we need to process semantic information and learn vocabularycomes on-line early in development and does not change as we matureConclusion Younger = Better in the Long RunIt may be that the image of a window slamming shut as an analogy for the effect of age onones ability to acquire a foreign language should be replaced by Bruers analogy of areservoir that gradually evaporates This analogy suggests a progressive rather than abruptdecline in ability over time Regarding critical periods in second-language acquisitionBialystok and Hakuta suggest that the difference between child and adult learners is morequantitative (or a matter of degree) than qualitative Overallthe evidence of a critical periodfor acquiring a second language is at best confusing Although the evidence argueBialystok and Hakuta indicates that the learning process is the same for both adults andchildren and that second-language learning is not necessarily subject to biological criticalperiods they do state that on average there is a continuous decline in ability with ageOlder beginners often show an initial advantage over younger beginners in learning a newlanguage however over time the younger beginners usually overtake the older beginnersThere seems then to be according to Bialystok and Hakuta a tortoise-and-the-hare effector as Singleton has put it younger = better in the long run For this reason we should by nomeans discount the importance of learning a second language early As Bruer states Thebrain and early childhood literature is correct to emphasize that second-language learning isincreasingly important and that often American schools provide too little language instructiontoo lateWhat should be questioned or re-evaluated are the underlying assumptions that side-step theissue of how best to teach foreign languages The age at which one first encounters a secondlanguage explains Singleton is only one of the many determinants of the ultimate level ofproficiency attained in that language We must not neglect other considerations includingwhat neuroscience is now telling us about how second languages might best be taught andlearnedTexte 4The Day His World Stood Stillby Joanna SchaffhausenWhen twenty-seven year old Henry M entered the hospital in 1953 for radical brain surgerythat was supposed to cure his epilepsy he was hopeful that the procedure would change hislife for the better Instead it trapped him in a mental time warp where TV is always a newinvention and Truman is forever president The removal of large sections of his temporallobes left Henry unable to form any new personal memories but his tragic loss revolutionized

the field of psychology and made HM the most-studied individual in the history of brainresearchHenry grew up outside of Hartford Connecticut and was by all accounts an amiable youngman with above average intelligence He liked to go ice skating and to listen to mystery showson the radio which he enjoyed because he could often deduce the villain ahead of theprogram detective Then on his sixteenth birthday Henry had his first grand mal seizureduring a celebratory trip to the city with his parents After that point the paralyzing seizuresarrived with increasing frequency until by the summer of 1953 he was experiencing as manyas eleven episodes per week He was unable to hold a steady job and his prospects forindependent living seemed dim There were not many effective treatments available forepilepsy in 1953 so it was with a mixture of hope and trepidation that Henrys family turnedto Dr William Scoville and his experimental surgeryThe Day His World Stood Still - Page 2The Fateful SurgeryThe idea behind the surgery was simple Seizures as Scoville correctly reasoned are causedby uncontrolled electrical impulses that start in a localized area and then spread throughoutthe rest of the brain If one could remove the part of the brain where the seizures originated itshould be possible to cure the epilepsy Henry had the most common form of the diseasecalled temporal lobe epilepsy which meant that his seizures began in the tissue located oneither side of his brain Dr Scoville removed a large chunk of Henrys right and left temporallobes which was a crucial decision because the brain is symmetrical and thus most importantstructures are duplicated Altogether Henry lost about a fist-sized portion of his brain whichencompassed (on both sides) the hippocampus the amygdala and the entorhinal andperirhinal cortices As it turns out the hippocampus is crucial for memory storage When helost his hippocampi Henry became frozen in 1953 remembering very well the events beforehis operation but unable to create any new memories He describes the experience like thisRight now Im wondering have I done or said anything amiss You see at this momenteverything looks clear to me but what happened just before Thats what worries me Its likewaking from a dream I just dont rememberWhat Henry Can Remember And What He CannotAt the time of Henrys surgery the study of memory was mostly limited to philosophicalwritings and introspective probing like the kind practiced by Sigmund Freud In the 1930sKarl Lashley began a systematic quest to find the exact location of memory in the brain Hetaught rats and monkeys a variety of tasks then destroyed a part of their brain reasoning thatif the animals could not remember after the lesion then he must have found the place wherememories reside After years of frustration Lashley concluded that nothing short of nearcomplete destruction of the brain caused the animals to forget their tasks and it seemed thatbiological study of memory was not possibleThen word began to spread of patient HM who had very localized brain damage but extremememory deficits Scientists were very interested in the precise nature of Henrys amnesia andbegan a careful study of which parts of his memory had been erased by the surgery and whichparts remained intact As noted before he had good recall of facts learned before hisoperation meaning that his long-term memory was unharmed Also Henry was able to holdinformation in storage for very short periods of time Most people can retain about sevenpieces of information (a telephone number for example) in memory for about thirty secondsand Henry scored normally on these kinds of tasks Thus his working memory (or scratchpadmemory) seemed unaffected by the loss of his hippocampus The main problem for Henrywas converting short-term memories into permanent storage a process called consolidationBased on the patterns of Henrys memory loss researchers formed the following hypothesesabout memory formation1) Short-term memories are biologically different from long-term memories because they donot require the hippocampus for formation2) Long-term memories are stored throughout the brain but the hippocampus is necessary forthe information to reach long-term storage Once the memory is permanently stored howeverthe hippocampus is no longer required Said another way the hippocampus is important forlong-term memory formation but not for memory maintenance or retrievalThis would explain why Henry can remember the events prior to his surgery but not store anynew memories afterward Even with thousands of repetitions he is unable to learn new factsHis doctors must reintroduce themselves each morning and Henry is never sure where he is

for very long Yet even as they marvel at the extent of his memory loss researchers havefound one other kind of memory task that Henry can perform normally skill learningOften termed procedural memory skill learning is a kind of unconscious memory Youmight recall your tennis lessons very well but when you hit the ball over the net there is noconscious awareness of each muscle group involved in the task Your backhand is simplyautomatic For Henry these kinds of motor skills are also automatic He does not rememberlearning them but his performance improves over time Learning to trace a star using areflection in the mirror for example is a task that most people do not do well the first timethey try it But with practice it becomes quite easy Henry shows the same kind ofimprovement on the star-tracing task even though each time he tries it he claims to havenever attempted it before Thus skill learning appears to be a special kind of long-memorythat does not require the hippocampusHenry Right NowStudy of Henrys case has led to some very seminal findings about memory Specifically itseems that the hippocampus is required for the formation of conscious long-term memoriesbut not for unconscious long-term skill memories or short-term recall Perhaps even moreimportantly Henry has vividly illustrated that there is a biological basis for memory and thatit is possible to use biological techniques to study a subject as elusive as memoryAs for Henrys current status he lives in a nursing home in Hartford and still travelsoccasionally to MIT for memory testing He enjoys doing crossword puzzles and watchingdetective shows on television His life is peaceful if not completely happy He worries oftenthat he has done something wrong and it is not possible for him to make any real friendssince he cannot remember a person from ten minutes to the next At times he seems to have asense of humor about his condition as in the following anecdote taken from his biographyMemorys Ghost The Strange Tale of Mr M and the Nature of Memory by Philip HiltsWhen walking down the corridor at MIT with Henry Dr Suzanne Corkin made the usualkind of small talk Do you know where you are HenryHenry grinned Why of course Im at MITDr Corkin was a bit surprised How do you know thatHenry laughed He pointed to a student nearby with a large MIT emblazoned on hissweatshirt Got ya that time Henry saidMainly though he leads a life of quiet confusion never knowing exactly how old he is (heguesses maybe thirty and is always surprised by his reflection in the mirror) and reliving hisgrief over the death of his mother every time he hears about it Though he does not recall hisoperation he knows that there is something wrong with his memory and has adopted aphilosophical stance on his problems It does get me upset but I always say to myself whatis to be is to be Thats the way I always figure it nowOften Henry will express the hope that others can learn from his unfortunate situation as hetold Philip Hilts in an interview several years agoWell what I keep thinking is that possibly I had an operation And somehow the memory isgoneAnd Im trying to figure it outI think of it all the time I dont remember this and whyI dont remember thatIs that worrisome Hilts wanted to knowWell it isnt worrisome in a way to me because I know that if they ever performed anoperation on me theyd learn from it It would help othersSadly the very nature of his memory loss prevents Henry from ever knowing the incrediblecontribution he has made to the field of psychology but his tale stands as an importantprologue to the ongoing story of memory research Long after Henry passes on HM willbe studied as the man whose unwitting sacrifice first vividly illustrated the important link

between memory and brain

Langue et Affaires Anglais Lecture 1 Business organization in Britain and the USA

1 Introduction What is a business - The 3 sectors of the economy - Business strategy The purpose of this lesson is to discuss the main business organizations of britain and america Brief definition of a business and give an overview of the 3 sectors of the economy

What is a business An organized effort to produce goods or services which can be supplied to satisfy the needs and wants of customers in exchange of a reward or payment which will give the producer or supplier an adequate return on his investment There are many different types of businesses Some are small local firms others are large companies make trade internationally or nationally Some may produce or sell goods whereas others provide a service Some do both such as computer stores that offer advice and maintenance to customers Some organizations are classified as businesses even though we may not think of them in this way ( football clubs or charities ) Businesses exist for a purpose A business needs funds Finance is usually the hardest thing to obtain A business needs customers and suppliers who provide many of the inputs such as raw materials Premises ex an office or a factory Management and organization A business may also need to protect its ideas or products through patents and copyright which make it illegal for other firms to copy directly the business idea or invention or by keeping new products secret until they are ready to launch by focussing on retaining key staff A business needs to have clear objectives An objective is a target that a business sets itself Difference between long and short term targets The targets must be regularly reviewed so that the business can measure its progress There are several objectives -Survive in the market -Break-even = cover costs -High motivation amongst its employees -Maximize profits -grow in size export -diversify and sell different products -Make returns to shareholders ( actionnaires ) of limited companies

2 Types of business Introduction Public sector and private sector

A) Sole tradersB) Partnerships The general partners The sleeping partners The salaried partner C) Limited companyIntroduction Definition of a limited company - Private limited companies - Public limited companies

D) FranchisingE) Types of businesses in AmericaF) Mergeers and acquisitionsG) Groups parent companies and subsidiaries H) Multinational and conglomeratesI) Blue chips

Conclusion

o Can you explain the term laquo word of the stock raquo (pupille de la nation)p What questions have haunted thoward q Did Howard dare to speak to his father r What happened to his stepmother s What did Howard decide to do t What couldnrsquot howard believe Toutes les reacuteponses sont dans le texte ndeg4Voca Deserve meacuteriterPaper-route ditribution de magazines dans les boicirctes aux lettresMake it stick soyez ferme Thrust enfonceacuteQuiver freacutemirPathways route qui relie un endroit agrave un autreSever couper = out offTexte 1This target article discusses the verbal working memory system used in sentencecomprehension We review the idea of working memory as a short duration system in whichsmall amounts of information are simultaneously stored and manipulated in the service of atask and that syntactic processing in sentence comprehension requires such a storage andcomputational system We inquire whether the working memory system used in syntacticprocessing is the same as that used in verbally mediated tasks involving conscious controlledprocessing Various forms of evidence are considered the relationship between individualdifferences in working memory and individual differences in the efficiency of syntacticprocessing the effect of concurrent verbal memory load on syntactic processing andsyntactic processing in patients with poor short term memory poor working memory oraphasia The experimental results suggest that the verbal working memory system specializedfor assigning the syntactic structure of a sentence and for using that structure in determiningsentence meaning is distinct from the working memory system that underlies the use ofsentence meaning to accomplish further functions We present a theory of the components ofthe verbal working memory system and suggestions as to its neural basis

Texte 2IQ tests are traditionally viewed as a quantitative measure of a persons intelligenceChildren who score very well on IQ tests are often tracked into programs for the giftedwhile those who do very poorly are tracked into remedial programs Despite theirprevalence the true meaning and import of IQ tests are subjects of some controversy in thefields of education psychology and neuroscienceOver the past year the subjects of intelligence a possible biological basis for intelligence andways to improve intelligence have all received a significant amount of media attention Thisarticle is a short review of some of these studiesThere seem to be two main camps on the subject of intelligence In one camp are theresearchers who not only support the concept of IQ as a measure of intelligence but alsobelieve that there is a biological switch that governs this intelligence such as a gene or somekind of brain chemical These researchers also believe that IQ and thus intelligence can beimproved by external means such as through dietary supplements or specific learningexercisesIn the second camp are the researchers who reject the concept of a single definition ofintelligence and suggest instead that human intelligence is too complex a mesh of qualitieswhich cannot be measured by a single score on a single test These researchers also believethat intelligence can be improved but only by incorporating a much wider definition ofintelligence than is currently in place in our societyLets start with some of the studies that fall into the first camp of opinion on IQ as a measureof intelligenceIn July 1999 researchers at the University of New Mexico announced a study linking levelsof two brain chemicals to performance on IQ testsWilliam Brooks and his colleagues used brain-imaging techniques to measure levels ofcholine and N-acetylasparate (NAA) in the brains of 26 healthy volunteersThe researchers found that people with low levels of choline and high levels of NAA tended

to have the higher scores on IQ tests The researchers suggested that a manipulation of thelevels of these brain chemicals such as with dietary supplements could increase IQ scoresMethods for increasing IQ scores abound in the press and are also the focus of a number ofacademic articlesThe well discussed and much publicized Mozart effect stems from a Wisconsin study thatsuggests that listening to Mozart boosts IQ Although a number of later studies suggest thatthe effect may not be as powerful as originally thought many preschools have institutedprograms such as Mozart hour to give their students the musics perceived benefitsPopular dietary supplements such as gingko biloba and phosphatidylserine are advertised asbrain enhancement products that improve mental functions such as problem solving andmemory although there is very little scientific evidence to support these claims There is evena firm out of Beverly Hills that offers a product called Brain Gum Their promise for theproduct is encapsulated in their phone number 1-888 IQ BOOSTIn the field of child development Linda Acredolo a psychology professor at the University ofCalifornia Davis has found that babies who are taught sign language starting at the age of 11months tend to have higher average IQs when they reach second grade than their peers whowere not taught sign language (scores were 114 for the sign language proficient 102 for thenon-signers)Behavioral experimentation on mice is a traditional tool for the study of gene manipulation onintelligence Last September researchers at Princeton reported that genetically engineeredmice that over-express a particular form of the brain protein called the NMDA receptorperform better at a number of behavioral tasks than normal mice The researchers suggest thatthis receptor could be a target for treating learning and memory disorders-this creation of amouse that performs well on memory tasks has been described as a possible first step inmaking human beings smarterOne question should be considered Does performance on IQ tests really tell us somethingconcrete about a persons intelligence This leads us to the second camp of researchers-thosewho argue that traditional IQ tests do not tell the whole storyHoward Gardner a professor of education at Harvard University proposes the theory ofmultiple intelligences in which there are at least eight different types of intelligence all ofwhich must be taken into account when establishing a vision of a persons abilities andpotentialMichael Howe a psychology professor at Exeter University has spent ten years studying thedevelopment of high achievers such as Mozart Michael Faraday and Isaac Newton In hisbook Genius Explained Howe argues that most geniuses dont have some ineffable qualitythat promotes their intelligence above that of the general population He argues that whatdistinguished these admittedly remarkable people was incredible persistence and devotion totheir particular field of interest Howe believes that sheer intelligence as measured by an IQtest wont automatically lead to success without the added qualities of determination andperseveranceAnother researcher Dr Ken Richardson also argues that the idea of an IQ score is too strictof a limit on the definition of intelligence In his book The Making of Intelligence he suggeststhat the idea of a single cause or kind of intelligence is not supported by our ever-increasingunderstanding of the mind and its functions His main idea is that intelligence is not a staticthing that is coded for us by our genes but is instead a result of a dynamic interaction betweenthe mental process with which we represent the world and the culture in which we liveAccording to Dr Richardson society has as much an influence on our intelligence as do ourgenesThomas Edisons famous definition of genius as 99 perspiration and 1 inspiration suggeststhat intelligence is as much a product of nurture as it is of nature However it is the questionof the origin of that mysterious 1 that fuels much of the interest in IQ scores memoryenhancing drugs and mind-boosting music Research results from the smart mouse andfrom the New Mexico study on brain chemical levels suggest that there may in fact be abiological quality be it gene or chemical that is the seat of that extra brain power that detailsthe difference between smart and not-smart gifted and remedial Researchers likeGardner and Richardson argue instead that the brain is too plastic and complex forintelligence to be limited by the actions of a single gene chemical or concept of IQAll of this intriguing research tells us that just as in so many areas of science more time andstudy is necessary before we can hope to find a clear answer In the end the final answer to

the question of intelligence will most likely be a multi-layered vision of human potential thatcombines all of these studies in biology psychology and cultural contextTexte 3Is There a Critical Period for Learning a Foreign LanguageJune 2000by Lisa ChipongianThe Myth of Missed OpportunitiesA popular misconception regarding second-language learning is that there is a window orcritical period for learning a second language that shuts down around the onset of puberty Inhis article Is There a Child Advantage in Learning Foreign Languages Brad Marshallpoints out the harm this misconception can cause Adults may become doubtful of their abilityto learn a new language Their teachers may become skeptical too tending to plod throughtheir classes feeling there is little hope of success When it comes to learning a foreignlanguage many believe that the adult brain is in a state of shutdown relative to the childsneurological state of readinessEarly Foreign Language Instruction is Not a Magical ToolIn The Age Factor in Second Language Acquisition David Singleton concedes that in secondlanguageinstruction younger = better in the long run But this is a general rule with plentyof exceptions The exceptions include the 5 percent of adult bilinguals who master a secondlanguage even though they begin learning it when they are well into adulthood long after anycritical period has presumably come to a closeBoth research and the informal observations of those who are in daily contact with secondlanguagelearners suggest that an early start in a second language is neither a strictlynecessary nor a universally sufficient condition for the attainment of native-like proficiencyGiven the enormous variation in peoples experience of second languagesmdasheven (orespecially) in the classroommdashthis ought to be a truismAs John T Bruer author of The Myth of the First Three Years states One of the dangers oftheemphasis on critical periods is that it prompts us to pay too much attention to whenlearning occurs and too little attention to how learning might best occur Marshall agreespointing out that learning a foreign language in elementary schoolmdashwhat most researchersgenerally agree is the ideal timemdashis not a magical tool for creating perfect second-languagespeakers Timing in other words is not everythingMany assume that critical learning periods apply not only to second-language learning but toother school subjects like math and reading Such beliefs writes Bruer have raised needlessconcerns among educators For instance once a critical period is over is lost academicground irrecoverable Such concerns arise from a simplistic and over-generalized applicationof critical periods to learning The extreme view that children must learn a foreign languageearly or not at all grows out of popular images of critical periods as closing abruptly likewindows slamming shutIs There a Critical Period for Learning a Foreign Language - Page 2Foreign-Language Learning and Critical PeriodsThe question of whether or not there is a critical period for learning a foreign language is noteasily answered But there is certainly no specific age at which the window of opportunitycloses completely As with the visual system the language system consists of several featuresand is not as Singleton writes a monolith Certain features of the language system may bemore related to distinct critical periods than others According to Ellen Bialystok and KenjiHakuta authors of In Other Words The controversy over the optimal age for learning asecond language really hinges on the acquisition of a subset of possible linguistic features andfunctionsThe Grammar-Learning Window Never Completely ClosesAlthough acquiring the grammar of ones first language does seem to be subject to a criticalperiod which ends around puberty the issue of whether or not there is also a critical period forsecond-language grammar acquisition is more complex In The Myth of the First Three YearsBruer does not state that there is a critical period for second-language grammar learninginstead he claims that there may be some maturational constraints on second-languagegrammar learningBialystok and Hakuta complicate the response to whether or not there is an optimal age forsecond-language grammar acquisition even further They point out that learning somelinguistic features like tense seems to be affected by age yet other linguistic structures like

word order are resistant to any effect of the learners age In their book In Other WordsBialystok and Hakuta state that syntax remains accessible throughout life even though thecircumstances of our lives may muddy that access Overall the amazing human ability tolearn grammar they argue remains with us as long as we remain humanPhonological Acquisition Is Age-SensitiveUnlike grammar learning second-language phonological acquisition is subject to a sensitiveperiod The decline in unaccented learning of a foreign language is progressive howeverand not characterized by a predictably abrupt change According to a study by James Flegesimilar and not entirely novel sounds are the ones that are affected by age In other wordsnew sounds are easier to pronounce with native-like accuracy than sounds that are similar butnot identical to those found in ones first languageAccording to Bruer we know almost nothing about the stages within the critical period forphonological learning We do know Bruer continues that the system remains plastic andable to tune itself to a second phonologyuntil early in the second decade of lifeVocabulary Learning Has No Critical PeriodOf vocabulary acquisition in ones first language Singleton writes there is no point at whichvocabulary acquisition can be predicted to cease There is also Singleton suggests nocritical period for learning vocabulary in a second languageAccording to the results of a study by Helen Neville using brain recordings semanticinformation seems to be processed in the same way by both speakers of English as a secondlanguage and native English speakers throughout life In The Myth of the First Three YearsBruer relates this consistency in how we acquire vocabulary throughout life to brainmaturation how we process vocabulary does not change with brain maturation as one wouldexpect it would if it were a form of time-limited experience-expectant learning It seemsinstead that the neural circuitry we need to process semantic information and learn vocabularycomes on-line early in development and does not change as we matureConclusion Younger = Better in the Long RunIt may be that the image of a window slamming shut as an analogy for the effect of age onones ability to acquire a foreign language should be replaced by Bruers analogy of areservoir that gradually evaporates This analogy suggests a progressive rather than abruptdecline in ability over time Regarding critical periods in second-language acquisitionBialystok and Hakuta suggest that the difference between child and adult learners is morequantitative (or a matter of degree) than qualitative Overallthe evidence of a critical periodfor acquiring a second language is at best confusing Although the evidence argueBialystok and Hakuta indicates that the learning process is the same for both adults andchildren and that second-language learning is not necessarily subject to biological criticalperiods they do state that on average there is a continuous decline in ability with ageOlder beginners often show an initial advantage over younger beginners in learning a newlanguage however over time the younger beginners usually overtake the older beginnersThere seems then to be according to Bialystok and Hakuta a tortoise-and-the-hare effector as Singleton has put it younger = better in the long run For this reason we should by nomeans discount the importance of learning a second language early As Bruer states Thebrain and early childhood literature is correct to emphasize that second-language learning isincreasingly important and that often American schools provide too little language instructiontoo lateWhat should be questioned or re-evaluated are the underlying assumptions that side-step theissue of how best to teach foreign languages The age at which one first encounters a secondlanguage explains Singleton is only one of the many determinants of the ultimate level ofproficiency attained in that language We must not neglect other considerations includingwhat neuroscience is now telling us about how second languages might best be taught andlearnedTexte 4The Day His World Stood Stillby Joanna SchaffhausenWhen twenty-seven year old Henry M entered the hospital in 1953 for radical brain surgerythat was supposed to cure his epilepsy he was hopeful that the procedure would change hislife for the better Instead it trapped him in a mental time warp where TV is always a newinvention and Truman is forever president The removal of large sections of his temporallobes left Henry unable to form any new personal memories but his tragic loss revolutionized

the field of psychology and made HM the most-studied individual in the history of brainresearchHenry grew up outside of Hartford Connecticut and was by all accounts an amiable youngman with above average intelligence He liked to go ice skating and to listen to mystery showson the radio which he enjoyed because he could often deduce the villain ahead of theprogram detective Then on his sixteenth birthday Henry had his first grand mal seizureduring a celebratory trip to the city with his parents After that point the paralyzing seizuresarrived with increasing frequency until by the summer of 1953 he was experiencing as manyas eleven episodes per week He was unable to hold a steady job and his prospects forindependent living seemed dim There were not many effective treatments available forepilepsy in 1953 so it was with a mixture of hope and trepidation that Henrys family turnedto Dr William Scoville and his experimental surgeryThe Day His World Stood Still - Page 2The Fateful SurgeryThe idea behind the surgery was simple Seizures as Scoville correctly reasoned are causedby uncontrolled electrical impulses that start in a localized area and then spread throughoutthe rest of the brain If one could remove the part of the brain where the seizures originated itshould be possible to cure the epilepsy Henry had the most common form of the diseasecalled temporal lobe epilepsy which meant that his seizures began in the tissue located oneither side of his brain Dr Scoville removed a large chunk of Henrys right and left temporallobes which was a crucial decision because the brain is symmetrical and thus most importantstructures are duplicated Altogether Henry lost about a fist-sized portion of his brain whichencompassed (on both sides) the hippocampus the amygdala and the entorhinal andperirhinal cortices As it turns out the hippocampus is crucial for memory storage When helost his hippocampi Henry became frozen in 1953 remembering very well the events beforehis operation but unable to create any new memories He describes the experience like thisRight now Im wondering have I done or said anything amiss You see at this momenteverything looks clear to me but what happened just before Thats what worries me Its likewaking from a dream I just dont rememberWhat Henry Can Remember And What He CannotAt the time of Henrys surgery the study of memory was mostly limited to philosophicalwritings and introspective probing like the kind practiced by Sigmund Freud In the 1930sKarl Lashley began a systematic quest to find the exact location of memory in the brain Hetaught rats and monkeys a variety of tasks then destroyed a part of their brain reasoning thatif the animals could not remember after the lesion then he must have found the place wherememories reside After years of frustration Lashley concluded that nothing short of nearcomplete destruction of the brain caused the animals to forget their tasks and it seemed thatbiological study of memory was not possibleThen word began to spread of patient HM who had very localized brain damage but extremememory deficits Scientists were very interested in the precise nature of Henrys amnesia andbegan a careful study of which parts of his memory had been erased by the surgery and whichparts remained intact As noted before he had good recall of facts learned before hisoperation meaning that his long-term memory was unharmed Also Henry was able to holdinformation in storage for very short periods of time Most people can retain about sevenpieces of information (a telephone number for example) in memory for about thirty secondsand Henry scored normally on these kinds of tasks Thus his working memory (or scratchpadmemory) seemed unaffected by the loss of his hippocampus The main problem for Henrywas converting short-term memories into permanent storage a process called consolidationBased on the patterns of Henrys memory loss researchers formed the following hypothesesabout memory formation1) Short-term memories are biologically different from long-term memories because they donot require the hippocampus for formation2) Long-term memories are stored throughout the brain but the hippocampus is necessary forthe information to reach long-term storage Once the memory is permanently stored howeverthe hippocampus is no longer required Said another way the hippocampus is important forlong-term memory formation but not for memory maintenance or retrievalThis would explain why Henry can remember the events prior to his surgery but not store anynew memories afterward Even with thousands of repetitions he is unable to learn new factsHis doctors must reintroduce themselves each morning and Henry is never sure where he is

for very long Yet even as they marvel at the extent of his memory loss researchers havefound one other kind of memory task that Henry can perform normally skill learningOften termed procedural memory skill learning is a kind of unconscious memory Youmight recall your tennis lessons very well but when you hit the ball over the net there is noconscious awareness of each muscle group involved in the task Your backhand is simplyautomatic For Henry these kinds of motor skills are also automatic He does not rememberlearning them but his performance improves over time Learning to trace a star using areflection in the mirror for example is a task that most people do not do well the first timethey try it But with practice it becomes quite easy Henry shows the same kind ofimprovement on the star-tracing task even though each time he tries it he claims to havenever attempted it before Thus skill learning appears to be a special kind of long-memorythat does not require the hippocampusHenry Right NowStudy of Henrys case has led to some very seminal findings about memory Specifically itseems that the hippocampus is required for the formation of conscious long-term memoriesbut not for unconscious long-term skill memories or short-term recall Perhaps even moreimportantly Henry has vividly illustrated that there is a biological basis for memory and thatit is possible to use biological techniques to study a subject as elusive as memoryAs for Henrys current status he lives in a nursing home in Hartford and still travelsoccasionally to MIT for memory testing He enjoys doing crossword puzzles and watchingdetective shows on television His life is peaceful if not completely happy He worries oftenthat he has done something wrong and it is not possible for him to make any real friendssince he cannot remember a person from ten minutes to the next At times he seems to have asense of humor about his condition as in the following anecdote taken from his biographyMemorys Ghost The Strange Tale of Mr M and the Nature of Memory by Philip HiltsWhen walking down the corridor at MIT with Henry Dr Suzanne Corkin made the usualkind of small talk Do you know where you are HenryHenry grinned Why of course Im at MITDr Corkin was a bit surprised How do you know thatHenry laughed He pointed to a student nearby with a large MIT emblazoned on hissweatshirt Got ya that time Henry saidMainly though he leads a life of quiet confusion never knowing exactly how old he is (heguesses maybe thirty and is always surprised by his reflection in the mirror) and reliving hisgrief over the death of his mother every time he hears about it Though he does not recall hisoperation he knows that there is something wrong with his memory and has adopted aphilosophical stance on his problems It does get me upset but I always say to myself whatis to be is to be Thats the way I always figure it nowOften Henry will express the hope that others can learn from his unfortunate situation as hetold Philip Hilts in an interview several years agoWell what I keep thinking is that possibly I had an operation And somehow the memory isgoneAnd Im trying to figure it outI think of it all the time I dont remember this and whyI dont remember thatIs that worrisome Hilts wanted to knowWell it isnt worrisome in a way to me because I know that if they ever performed anoperation on me theyd learn from it It would help othersSadly the very nature of his memory loss prevents Henry from ever knowing the incrediblecontribution he has made to the field of psychology but his tale stands as an importantprologue to the ongoing story of memory research Long after Henry passes on HM willbe studied as the man whose unwitting sacrifice first vividly illustrated the important link

between memory and brain

Langue et Affaires Anglais Lecture 1 Business organization in Britain and the USA

1 Introduction What is a business - The 3 sectors of the economy - Business strategy The purpose of this lesson is to discuss the main business organizations of britain and america Brief definition of a business and give an overview of the 3 sectors of the economy

What is a business An organized effort to produce goods or services which can be supplied to satisfy the needs and wants of customers in exchange of a reward or payment which will give the producer or supplier an adequate return on his investment There are many different types of businesses Some are small local firms others are large companies make trade internationally or nationally Some may produce or sell goods whereas others provide a service Some do both such as computer stores that offer advice and maintenance to customers Some organizations are classified as businesses even though we may not think of them in this way ( football clubs or charities ) Businesses exist for a purpose A business needs funds Finance is usually the hardest thing to obtain A business needs customers and suppliers who provide many of the inputs such as raw materials Premises ex an office or a factory Management and organization A business may also need to protect its ideas or products through patents and copyright which make it illegal for other firms to copy directly the business idea or invention or by keeping new products secret until they are ready to launch by focussing on retaining key staff A business needs to have clear objectives An objective is a target that a business sets itself Difference between long and short term targets The targets must be regularly reviewed so that the business can measure its progress There are several objectives -Survive in the market -Break-even = cover costs -High motivation amongst its employees -Maximize profits -grow in size export -diversify and sell different products -Make returns to shareholders ( actionnaires ) of limited companies

2 Types of business Introduction Public sector and private sector

A) Sole tradersB) Partnerships The general partners The sleeping partners The salaried partner C) Limited companyIntroduction Definition of a limited company - Private limited companies - Public limited companies

D) FranchisingE) Types of businesses in AmericaF) Mergeers and acquisitionsG) Groups parent companies and subsidiaries H) Multinational and conglomeratesI) Blue chips

Conclusion

to have the higher scores on IQ tests The researchers suggested that a manipulation of thelevels of these brain chemicals such as with dietary supplements could increase IQ scoresMethods for increasing IQ scores abound in the press and are also the focus of a number ofacademic articlesThe well discussed and much publicized Mozart effect stems from a Wisconsin study thatsuggests that listening to Mozart boosts IQ Although a number of later studies suggest thatthe effect may not be as powerful as originally thought many preschools have institutedprograms such as Mozart hour to give their students the musics perceived benefitsPopular dietary supplements such as gingko biloba and phosphatidylserine are advertised asbrain enhancement products that improve mental functions such as problem solving andmemory although there is very little scientific evidence to support these claims There is evena firm out of Beverly Hills that offers a product called Brain Gum Their promise for theproduct is encapsulated in their phone number 1-888 IQ BOOSTIn the field of child development Linda Acredolo a psychology professor at the University ofCalifornia Davis has found that babies who are taught sign language starting at the age of 11months tend to have higher average IQs when they reach second grade than their peers whowere not taught sign language (scores were 114 for the sign language proficient 102 for thenon-signers)Behavioral experimentation on mice is a traditional tool for the study of gene manipulation onintelligence Last September researchers at Princeton reported that genetically engineeredmice that over-express a particular form of the brain protein called the NMDA receptorperform better at a number of behavioral tasks than normal mice The researchers suggest thatthis receptor could be a target for treating learning and memory disorders-this creation of amouse that performs well on memory tasks has been described as a possible first step inmaking human beings smarterOne question should be considered Does performance on IQ tests really tell us somethingconcrete about a persons intelligence This leads us to the second camp of researchers-thosewho argue that traditional IQ tests do not tell the whole storyHoward Gardner a professor of education at Harvard University proposes the theory ofmultiple intelligences in which there are at least eight different types of intelligence all ofwhich must be taken into account when establishing a vision of a persons abilities andpotentialMichael Howe a psychology professor at Exeter University has spent ten years studying thedevelopment of high achievers such as Mozart Michael Faraday and Isaac Newton In hisbook Genius Explained Howe argues that most geniuses dont have some ineffable qualitythat promotes their intelligence above that of the general population He argues that whatdistinguished these admittedly remarkable people was incredible persistence and devotion totheir particular field of interest Howe believes that sheer intelligence as measured by an IQtest wont automatically lead to success without the added qualities of determination andperseveranceAnother researcher Dr Ken Richardson also argues that the idea of an IQ score is too strictof a limit on the definition of intelligence In his book The Making of Intelligence he suggeststhat the idea of a single cause or kind of intelligence is not supported by our ever-increasingunderstanding of the mind and its functions His main idea is that intelligence is not a staticthing that is coded for us by our genes but is instead a result of a dynamic interaction betweenthe mental process with which we represent the world and the culture in which we liveAccording to Dr Richardson society has as much an influence on our intelligence as do ourgenesThomas Edisons famous definition of genius as 99 perspiration and 1 inspiration suggeststhat intelligence is as much a product of nurture as it is of nature However it is the questionof the origin of that mysterious 1 that fuels much of the interest in IQ scores memoryenhancing drugs and mind-boosting music Research results from the smart mouse andfrom the New Mexico study on brain chemical levels suggest that there may in fact be abiological quality be it gene or chemical that is the seat of that extra brain power that detailsthe difference between smart and not-smart gifted and remedial Researchers likeGardner and Richardson argue instead that the brain is too plastic and complex forintelligence to be limited by the actions of a single gene chemical or concept of IQAll of this intriguing research tells us that just as in so many areas of science more time andstudy is necessary before we can hope to find a clear answer In the end the final answer to

the question of intelligence will most likely be a multi-layered vision of human potential thatcombines all of these studies in biology psychology and cultural contextTexte 3Is There a Critical Period for Learning a Foreign LanguageJune 2000by Lisa ChipongianThe Myth of Missed OpportunitiesA popular misconception regarding second-language learning is that there is a window orcritical period for learning a second language that shuts down around the onset of puberty Inhis article Is There a Child Advantage in Learning Foreign Languages Brad Marshallpoints out the harm this misconception can cause Adults may become doubtful of their abilityto learn a new language Their teachers may become skeptical too tending to plod throughtheir classes feeling there is little hope of success When it comes to learning a foreignlanguage many believe that the adult brain is in a state of shutdown relative to the childsneurological state of readinessEarly Foreign Language Instruction is Not a Magical ToolIn The Age Factor in Second Language Acquisition David Singleton concedes that in secondlanguageinstruction younger = better in the long run But this is a general rule with plentyof exceptions The exceptions include the 5 percent of adult bilinguals who master a secondlanguage even though they begin learning it when they are well into adulthood long after anycritical period has presumably come to a closeBoth research and the informal observations of those who are in daily contact with secondlanguagelearners suggest that an early start in a second language is neither a strictlynecessary nor a universally sufficient condition for the attainment of native-like proficiencyGiven the enormous variation in peoples experience of second languagesmdasheven (orespecially) in the classroommdashthis ought to be a truismAs John T Bruer author of The Myth of the First Three Years states One of the dangers oftheemphasis on critical periods is that it prompts us to pay too much attention to whenlearning occurs and too little attention to how learning might best occur Marshall agreespointing out that learning a foreign language in elementary schoolmdashwhat most researchersgenerally agree is the ideal timemdashis not a magical tool for creating perfect second-languagespeakers Timing in other words is not everythingMany assume that critical learning periods apply not only to second-language learning but toother school subjects like math and reading Such beliefs writes Bruer have raised needlessconcerns among educators For instance once a critical period is over is lost academicground irrecoverable Such concerns arise from a simplistic and over-generalized applicationof critical periods to learning The extreme view that children must learn a foreign languageearly or not at all grows out of popular images of critical periods as closing abruptly likewindows slamming shutIs There a Critical Period for Learning a Foreign Language - Page 2Foreign-Language Learning and Critical PeriodsThe question of whether or not there is a critical period for learning a foreign language is noteasily answered But there is certainly no specific age at which the window of opportunitycloses completely As with the visual system the language system consists of several featuresand is not as Singleton writes a monolith Certain features of the language system may bemore related to distinct critical periods than others According to Ellen Bialystok and KenjiHakuta authors of In Other Words The controversy over the optimal age for learning asecond language really hinges on the acquisition of a subset of possible linguistic features andfunctionsThe Grammar-Learning Window Never Completely ClosesAlthough acquiring the grammar of ones first language does seem to be subject to a criticalperiod which ends around puberty the issue of whether or not there is also a critical period forsecond-language grammar acquisition is more complex In The Myth of the First Three YearsBruer does not state that there is a critical period for second-language grammar learninginstead he claims that there may be some maturational constraints on second-languagegrammar learningBialystok and Hakuta complicate the response to whether or not there is an optimal age forsecond-language grammar acquisition even further They point out that learning somelinguistic features like tense seems to be affected by age yet other linguistic structures like

word order are resistant to any effect of the learners age In their book In Other WordsBialystok and Hakuta state that syntax remains accessible throughout life even though thecircumstances of our lives may muddy that access Overall the amazing human ability tolearn grammar they argue remains with us as long as we remain humanPhonological Acquisition Is Age-SensitiveUnlike grammar learning second-language phonological acquisition is subject to a sensitiveperiod The decline in unaccented learning of a foreign language is progressive howeverand not characterized by a predictably abrupt change According to a study by James Flegesimilar and not entirely novel sounds are the ones that are affected by age In other wordsnew sounds are easier to pronounce with native-like accuracy than sounds that are similar butnot identical to those found in ones first languageAccording to Bruer we know almost nothing about the stages within the critical period forphonological learning We do know Bruer continues that the system remains plastic andable to tune itself to a second phonologyuntil early in the second decade of lifeVocabulary Learning Has No Critical PeriodOf vocabulary acquisition in ones first language Singleton writes there is no point at whichvocabulary acquisition can be predicted to cease There is also Singleton suggests nocritical period for learning vocabulary in a second languageAccording to the results of a study by Helen Neville using brain recordings semanticinformation seems to be processed in the same way by both speakers of English as a secondlanguage and native English speakers throughout life In The Myth of the First Three YearsBruer relates this consistency in how we acquire vocabulary throughout life to brainmaturation how we process vocabulary does not change with brain maturation as one wouldexpect it would if it were a form of time-limited experience-expectant learning It seemsinstead that the neural circuitry we need to process semantic information and learn vocabularycomes on-line early in development and does not change as we matureConclusion Younger = Better in the Long RunIt may be that the image of a window slamming shut as an analogy for the effect of age onones ability to acquire a foreign language should be replaced by Bruers analogy of areservoir that gradually evaporates This analogy suggests a progressive rather than abruptdecline in ability over time Regarding critical periods in second-language acquisitionBialystok and Hakuta suggest that the difference between child and adult learners is morequantitative (or a matter of degree) than qualitative Overallthe evidence of a critical periodfor acquiring a second language is at best confusing Although the evidence argueBialystok and Hakuta indicates that the learning process is the same for both adults andchildren and that second-language learning is not necessarily subject to biological criticalperiods they do state that on average there is a continuous decline in ability with ageOlder beginners often show an initial advantage over younger beginners in learning a newlanguage however over time the younger beginners usually overtake the older beginnersThere seems then to be according to Bialystok and Hakuta a tortoise-and-the-hare effector as Singleton has put it younger = better in the long run For this reason we should by nomeans discount the importance of learning a second language early As Bruer states Thebrain and early childhood literature is correct to emphasize that second-language learning isincreasingly important and that often American schools provide too little language instructiontoo lateWhat should be questioned or re-evaluated are the underlying assumptions that side-step theissue of how best to teach foreign languages The age at which one first encounters a secondlanguage explains Singleton is only one of the many determinants of the ultimate level ofproficiency attained in that language We must not neglect other considerations includingwhat neuroscience is now telling us about how second languages might best be taught andlearnedTexte 4The Day His World Stood Stillby Joanna SchaffhausenWhen twenty-seven year old Henry M entered the hospital in 1953 for radical brain surgerythat was supposed to cure his epilepsy he was hopeful that the procedure would change hislife for the better Instead it trapped him in a mental time warp where TV is always a newinvention and Truman is forever president The removal of large sections of his temporallobes left Henry unable to form any new personal memories but his tragic loss revolutionized

the field of psychology and made HM the most-studied individual in the history of brainresearchHenry grew up outside of Hartford Connecticut and was by all accounts an amiable youngman with above average intelligence He liked to go ice skating and to listen to mystery showson the radio which he enjoyed because he could often deduce the villain ahead of theprogram detective Then on his sixteenth birthday Henry had his first grand mal seizureduring a celebratory trip to the city with his parents After that point the paralyzing seizuresarrived with increasing frequency until by the summer of 1953 he was experiencing as manyas eleven episodes per week He was unable to hold a steady job and his prospects forindependent living seemed dim There were not many effective treatments available forepilepsy in 1953 so it was with a mixture of hope and trepidation that Henrys family turnedto Dr William Scoville and his experimental surgeryThe Day His World Stood Still - Page 2The Fateful SurgeryThe idea behind the surgery was simple Seizures as Scoville correctly reasoned are causedby uncontrolled electrical impulses that start in a localized area and then spread throughoutthe rest of the brain If one could remove the part of the brain where the seizures originated itshould be possible to cure the epilepsy Henry had the most common form of the diseasecalled temporal lobe epilepsy which meant that his seizures began in the tissue located oneither side of his brain Dr Scoville removed a large chunk of Henrys right and left temporallobes which was a crucial decision because the brain is symmetrical and thus most importantstructures are duplicated Altogether Henry lost about a fist-sized portion of his brain whichencompassed (on both sides) the hippocampus the amygdala and the entorhinal andperirhinal cortices As it turns out the hippocampus is crucial for memory storage When helost his hippocampi Henry became frozen in 1953 remembering very well the events beforehis operation but unable to create any new memories He describes the experience like thisRight now Im wondering have I done or said anything amiss You see at this momenteverything looks clear to me but what happened just before Thats what worries me Its likewaking from a dream I just dont rememberWhat Henry Can Remember And What He CannotAt the time of Henrys surgery the study of memory was mostly limited to philosophicalwritings and introspective probing like the kind practiced by Sigmund Freud In the 1930sKarl Lashley began a systematic quest to find the exact location of memory in the brain Hetaught rats and monkeys a variety of tasks then destroyed a part of their brain reasoning thatif the animals could not remember after the lesion then he must have found the place wherememories reside After years of frustration Lashley concluded that nothing short of nearcomplete destruction of the brain caused the animals to forget their tasks and it seemed thatbiological study of memory was not possibleThen word began to spread of patient HM who had very localized brain damage but extremememory deficits Scientists were very interested in the precise nature of Henrys amnesia andbegan a careful study of which parts of his memory had been erased by the surgery and whichparts remained intact As noted before he had good recall of facts learned before hisoperation meaning that his long-term memory was unharmed Also Henry was able to holdinformation in storage for very short periods of time Most people can retain about sevenpieces of information (a telephone number for example) in memory for about thirty secondsand Henry scored normally on these kinds of tasks Thus his working memory (or scratchpadmemory) seemed unaffected by the loss of his hippocampus The main problem for Henrywas converting short-term memories into permanent storage a process called consolidationBased on the patterns of Henrys memory loss researchers formed the following hypothesesabout memory formation1) Short-term memories are biologically different from long-term memories because they donot require the hippocampus for formation2) Long-term memories are stored throughout the brain but the hippocampus is necessary forthe information to reach long-term storage Once the memory is permanently stored howeverthe hippocampus is no longer required Said another way the hippocampus is important forlong-term memory formation but not for memory maintenance or retrievalThis would explain why Henry can remember the events prior to his surgery but not store anynew memories afterward Even with thousands of repetitions he is unable to learn new factsHis doctors must reintroduce themselves each morning and Henry is never sure where he is

for very long Yet even as they marvel at the extent of his memory loss researchers havefound one other kind of memory task that Henry can perform normally skill learningOften termed procedural memory skill learning is a kind of unconscious memory Youmight recall your tennis lessons very well but when you hit the ball over the net there is noconscious awareness of each muscle group involved in the task Your backhand is simplyautomatic For Henry these kinds of motor skills are also automatic He does not rememberlearning them but his performance improves over time Learning to trace a star using areflection in the mirror for example is a task that most people do not do well the first timethey try it But with practice it becomes quite easy Henry shows the same kind ofimprovement on the star-tracing task even though each time he tries it he claims to havenever attempted it before Thus skill learning appears to be a special kind of long-memorythat does not require the hippocampusHenry Right NowStudy of Henrys case has led to some very seminal findings about memory Specifically itseems that the hippocampus is required for the formation of conscious long-term memoriesbut not for unconscious long-term skill memories or short-term recall Perhaps even moreimportantly Henry has vividly illustrated that there is a biological basis for memory and thatit is possible to use biological techniques to study a subject as elusive as memoryAs for Henrys current status he lives in a nursing home in Hartford and still travelsoccasionally to MIT for memory testing He enjoys doing crossword puzzles and watchingdetective shows on television His life is peaceful if not completely happy He worries oftenthat he has done something wrong and it is not possible for him to make any real friendssince he cannot remember a person from ten minutes to the next At times he seems to have asense of humor about his condition as in the following anecdote taken from his biographyMemorys Ghost The Strange Tale of Mr M and the Nature of Memory by Philip HiltsWhen walking down the corridor at MIT with Henry Dr Suzanne Corkin made the usualkind of small talk Do you know where you are HenryHenry grinned Why of course Im at MITDr Corkin was a bit surprised How do you know thatHenry laughed He pointed to a student nearby with a large MIT emblazoned on hissweatshirt Got ya that time Henry saidMainly though he leads a life of quiet confusion never knowing exactly how old he is (heguesses maybe thirty and is always surprised by his reflection in the mirror) and reliving hisgrief over the death of his mother every time he hears about it Though he does not recall hisoperation he knows that there is something wrong with his memory and has adopted aphilosophical stance on his problems It does get me upset but I always say to myself whatis to be is to be Thats the way I always figure it nowOften Henry will express the hope that others can learn from his unfortunate situation as hetold Philip Hilts in an interview several years agoWell what I keep thinking is that possibly I had an operation And somehow the memory isgoneAnd Im trying to figure it outI think of it all the time I dont remember this and whyI dont remember thatIs that worrisome Hilts wanted to knowWell it isnt worrisome in a way to me because I know that if they ever performed anoperation on me theyd learn from it It would help othersSadly the very nature of his memory loss prevents Henry from ever knowing the incrediblecontribution he has made to the field of psychology but his tale stands as an importantprologue to the ongoing story of memory research Long after Henry passes on HM willbe studied as the man whose unwitting sacrifice first vividly illustrated the important link

between memory and brain

Langue et Affaires Anglais Lecture 1 Business organization in Britain and the USA

1 Introduction What is a business - The 3 sectors of the economy - Business strategy The purpose of this lesson is to discuss the main business organizations of britain and america Brief definition of a business and give an overview of the 3 sectors of the economy

What is a business An organized effort to produce goods or services which can be supplied to satisfy the needs and wants of customers in exchange of a reward or payment which will give the producer or supplier an adequate return on his investment There are many different types of businesses Some are small local firms others are large companies make trade internationally or nationally Some may produce or sell goods whereas others provide a service Some do both such as computer stores that offer advice and maintenance to customers Some organizations are classified as businesses even though we may not think of them in this way ( football clubs or charities ) Businesses exist for a purpose A business needs funds Finance is usually the hardest thing to obtain A business needs customers and suppliers who provide many of the inputs such as raw materials Premises ex an office or a factory Management and organization A business may also need to protect its ideas or products through patents and copyright which make it illegal for other firms to copy directly the business idea or invention or by keeping new products secret until they are ready to launch by focussing on retaining key staff A business needs to have clear objectives An objective is a target that a business sets itself Difference between long and short term targets The targets must be regularly reviewed so that the business can measure its progress There are several objectives -Survive in the market -Break-even = cover costs -High motivation amongst its employees -Maximize profits -grow in size export -diversify and sell different products -Make returns to shareholders ( actionnaires ) of limited companies

2 Types of business Introduction Public sector and private sector

A) Sole tradersB) Partnerships The general partners The sleeping partners The salaried partner C) Limited companyIntroduction Definition of a limited company - Private limited companies - Public limited companies

D) FranchisingE) Types of businesses in AmericaF) Mergeers and acquisitionsG) Groups parent companies and subsidiaries H) Multinational and conglomeratesI) Blue chips

Conclusion

the question of intelligence will most likely be a multi-layered vision of human potential thatcombines all of these studies in biology psychology and cultural contextTexte 3Is There a Critical Period for Learning a Foreign LanguageJune 2000by Lisa ChipongianThe Myth of Missed OpportunitiesA popular misconception regarding second-language learning is that there is a window orcritical period for learning a second language that shuts down around the onset of puberty Inhis article Is There a Child Advantage in Learning Foreign Languages Brad Marshallpoints out the harm this misconception can cause Adults may become doubtful of their abilityto learn a new language Their teachers may become skeptical too tending to plod throughtheir classes feeling there is little hope of success When it comes to learning a foreignlanguage many believe that the adult brain is in a state of shutdown relative to the childsneurological state of readinessEarly Foreign Language Instruction is Not a Magical ToolIn The Age Factor in Second Language Acquisition David Singleton concedes that in secondlanguageinstruction younger = better in the long run But this is a general rule with plentyof exceptions The exceptions include the 5 percent of adult bilinguals who master a secondlanguage even though they begin learning it when they are well into adulthood long after anycritical period has presumably come to a closeBoth research and the informal observations of those who are in daily contact with secondlanguagelearners suggest that an early start in a second language is neither a strictlynecessary nor a universally sufficient condition for the attainment of native-like proficiencyGiven the enormous variation in peoples experience of second languagesmdasheven (orespecially) in the classroommdashthis ought to be a truismAs John T Bruer author of The Myth of the First Three Years states One of the dangers oftheemphasis on critical periods is that it prompts us to pay too much attention to whenlearning occurs and too little attention to how learning might best occur Marshall agreespointing out that learning a foreign language in elementary schoolmdashwhat most researchersgenerally agree is the ideal timemdashis not a magical tool for creating perfect second-languagespeakers Timing in other words is not everythingMany assume that critical learning periods apply not only to second-language learning but toother school subjects like math and reading Such beliefs writes Bruer have raised needlessconcerns among educators For instance once a critical period is over is lost academicground irrecoverable Such concerns arise from a simplistic and over-generalized applicationof critical periods to learning The extreme view that children must learn a foreign languageearly or not at all grows out of popular images of critical periods as closing abruptly likewindows slamming shutIs There a Critical Period for Learning a Foreign Language - Page 2Foreign-Language Learning and Critical PeriodsThe question of whether or not there is a critical period for learning a foreign language is noteasily answered But there is certainly no specific age at which the window of opportunitycloses completely As with the visual system the language system consists of several featuresand is not as Singleton writes a monolith Certain features of the language system may bemore related to distinct critical periods than others According to Ellen Bialystok and KenjiHakuta authors of In Other Words The controversy over the optimal age for learning asecond language really hinges on the acquisition of a subset of possible linguistic features andfunctionsThe Grammar-Learning Window Never Completely ClosesAlthough acquiring the grammar of ones first language does seem to be subject to a criticalperiod which ends around puberty the issue of whether or not there is also a critical period forsecond-language grammar acquisition is more complex In The Myth of the First Three YearsBruer does not state that there is a critical period for second-language grammar learninginstead he claims that there may be some maturational constraints on second-languagegrammar learningBialystok and Hakuta complicate the response to whether or not there is an optimal age forsecond-language grammar acquisition even further They point out that learning somelinguistic features like tense seems to be affected by age yet other linguistic structures like

word order are resistant to any effect of the learners age In their book In Other WordsBialystok and Hakuta state that syntax remains accessible throughout life even though thecircumstances of our lives may muddy that access Overall the amazing human ability tolearn grammar they argue remains with us as long as we remain humanPhonological Acquisition Is Age-SensitiveUnlike grammar learning second-language phonological acquisition is subject to a sensitiveperiod The decline in unaccented learning of a foreign language is progressive howeverand not characterized by a predictably abrupt change According to a study by James Flegesimilar and not entirely novel sounds are the ones that are affected by age In other wordsnew sounds are easier to pronounce with native-like accuracy than sounds that are similar butnot identical to those found in ones first languageAccording to Bruer we know almost nothing about the stages within the critical period forphonological learning We do know Bruer continues that the system remains plastic andable to tune itself to a second phonologyuntil early in the second decade of lifeVocabulary Learning Has No Critical PeriodOf vocabulary acquisition in ones first language Singleton writes there is no point at whichvocabulary acquisition can be predicted to cease There is also Singleton suggests nocritical period for learning vocabulary in a second languageAccording to the results of a study by Helen Neville using brain recordings semanticinformation seems to be processed in the same way by both speakers of English as a secondlanguage and native English speakers throughout life In The Myth of the First Three YearsBruer relates this consistency in how we acquire vocabulary throughout life to brainmaturation how we process vocabulary does not change with brain maturation as one wouldexpect it would if it were a form of time-limited experience-expectant learning It seemsinstead that the neural circuitry we need to process semantic information and learn vocabularycomes on-line early in development and does not change as we matureConclusion Younger = Better in the Long RunIt may be that the image of a window slamming shut as an analogy for the effect of age onones ability to acquire a foreign language should be replaced by Bruers analogy of areservoir that gradually evaporates This analogy suggests a progressive rather than abruptdecline in ability over time Regarding critical periods in second-language acquisitionBialystok and Hakuta suggest that the difference between child and adult learners is morequantitative (or a matter of degree) than qualitative Overallthe evidence of a critical periodfor acquiring a second language is at best confusing Although the evidence argueBialystok and Hakuta indicates that the learning process is the same for both adults andchildren and that second-language learning is not necessarily subject to biological criticalperiods they do state that on average there is a continuous decline in ability with ageOlder beginners often show an initial advantage over younger beginners in learning a newlanguage however over time the younger beginners usually overtake the older beginnersThere seems then to be according to Bialystok and Hakuta a tortoise-and-the-hare effector as Singleton has put it younger = better in the long run For this reason we should by nomeans discount the importance of learning a second language early As Bruer states Thebrain and early childhood literature is correct to emphasize that second-language learning isincreasingly important and that often American schools provide too little language instructiontoo lateWhat should be questioned or re-evaluated are the underlying assumptions that side-step theissue of how best to teach foreign languages The age at which one first encounters a secondlanguage explains Singleton is only one of the many determinants of the ultimate level ofproficiency attained in that language We must not neglect other considerations includingwhat neuroscience is now telling us about how second languages might best be taught andlearnedTexte 4The Day His World Stood Stillby Joanna SchaffhausenWhen twenty-seven year old Henry M entered the hospital in 1953 for radical brain surgerythat was supposed to cure his epilepsy he was hopeful that the procedure would change hislife for the better Instead it trapped him in a mental time warp where TV is always a newinvention and Truman is forever president The removal of large sections of his temporallobes left Henry unable to form any new personal memories but his tragic loss revolutionized

the field of psychology and made HM the most-studied individual in the history of brainresearchHenry grew up outside of Hartford Connecticut and was by all accounts an amiable youngman with above average intelligence He liked to go ice skating and to listen to mystery showson the radio which he enjoyed because he could often deduce the villain ahead of theprogram detective Then on his sixteenth birthday Henry had his first grand mal seizureduring a celebratory trip to the city with his parents After that point the paralyzing seizuresarrived with increasing frequency until by the summer of 1953 he was experiencing as manyas eleven episodes per week He was unable to hold a steady job and his prospects forindependent living seemed dim There were not many effective treatments available forepilepsy in 1953 so it was with a mixture of hope and trepidation that Henrys family turnedto Dr William Scoville and his experimental surgeryThe Day His World Stood Still - Page 2The Fateful SurgeryThe idea behind the surgery was simple Seizures as Scoville correctly reasoned are causedby uncontrolled electrical impulses that start in a localized area and then spread throughoutthe rest of the brain If one could remove the part of the brain where the seizures originated itshould be possible to cure the epilepsy Henry had the most common form of the diseasecalled temporal lobe epilepsy which meant that his seizures began in the tissue located oneither side of his brain Dr Scoville removed a large chunk of Henrys right and left temporallobes which was a crucial decision because the brain is symmetrical and thus most importantstructures are duplicated Altogether Henry lost about a fist-sized portion of his brain whichencompassed (on both sides) the hippocampus the amygdala and the entorhinal andperirhinal cortices As it turns out the hippocampus is crucial for memory storage When helost his hippocampi Henry became frozen in 1953 remembering very well the events beforehis operation but unable to create any new memories He describes the experience like thisRight now Im wondering have I done or said anything amiss You see at this momenteverything looks clear to me but what happened just before Thats what worries me Its likewaking from a dream I just dont rememberWhat Henry Can Remember And What He CannotAt the time of Henrys surgery the study of memory was mostly limited to philosophicalwritings and introspective probing like the kind practiced by Sigmund Freud In the 1930sKarl Lashley began a systematic quest to find the exact location of memory in the brain Hetaught rats and monkeys a variety of tasks then destroyed a part of their brain reasoning thatif the animals could not remember after the lesion then he must have found the place wherememories reside After years of frustration Lashley concluded that nothing short of nearcomplete destruction of the brain caused the animals to forget their tasks and it seemed thatbiological study of memory was not possibleThen word began to spread of patient HM who had very localized brain damage but extremememory deficits Scientists were very interested in the precise nature of Henrys amnesia andbegan a careful study of which parts of his memory had been erased by the surgery and whichparts remained intact As noted before he had good recall of facts learned before hisoperation meaning that his long-term memory was unharmed Also Henry was able to holdinformation in storage for very short periods of time Most people can retain about sevenpieces of information (a telephone number for example) in memory for about thirty secondsand Henry scored normally on these kinds of tasks Thus his working memory (or scratchpadmemory) seemed unaffected by the loss of his hippocampus The main problem for Henrywas converting short-term memories into permanent storage a process called consolidationBased on the patterns of Henrys memory loss researchers formed the following hypothesesabout memory formation1) Short-term memories are biologically different from long-term memories because they donot require the hippocampus for formation2) Long-term memories are stored throughout the brain but the hippocampus is necessary forthe information to reach long-term storage Once the memory is permanently stored howeverthe hippocampus is no longer required Said another way the hippocampus is important forlong-term memory formation but not for memory maintenance or retrievalThis would explain why Henry can remember the events prior to his surgery but not store anynew memories afterward Even with thousands of repetitions he is unable to learn new factsHis doctors must reintroduce themselves each morning and Henry is never sure where he is

for very long Yet even as they marvel at the extent of his memory loss researchers havefound one other kind of memory task that Henry can perform normally skill learningOften termed procedural memory skill learning is a kind of unconscious memory Youmight recall your tennis lessons very well but when you hit the ball over the net there is noconscious awareness of each muscle group involved in the task Your backhand is simplyautomatic For Henry these kinds of motor skills are also automatic He does not rememberlearning them but his performance improves over time Learning to trace a star using areflection in the mirror for example is a task that most people do not do well the first timethey try it But with practice it becomes quite easy Henry shows the same kind ofimprovement on the star-tracing task even though each time he tries it he claims to havenever attempted it before Thus skill learning appears to be a special kind of long-memorythat does not require the hippocampusHenry Right NowStudy of Henrys case has led to some very seminal findings about memory Specifically itseems that the hippocampus is required for the formation of conscious long-term memoriesbut not for unconscious long-term skill memories or short-term recall Perhaps even moreimportantly Henry has vividly illustrated that there is a biological basis for memory and thatit is possible to use biological techniques to study a subject as elusive as memoryAs for Henrys current status he lives in a nursing home in Hartford and still travelsoccasionally to MIT for memory testing He enjoys doing crossword puzzles and watchingdetective shows on television His life is peaceful if not completely happy He worries oftenthat he has done something wrong and it is not possible for him to make any real friendssince he cannot remember a person from ten minutes to the next At times he seems to have asense of humor about his condition as in the following anecdote taken from his biographyMemorys Ghost The Strange Tale of Mr M and the Nature of Memory by Philip HiltsWhen walking down the corridor at MIT with Henry Dr Suzanne Corkin made the usualkind of small talk Do you know where you are HenryHenry grinned Why of course Im at MITDr Corkin was a bit surprised How do you know thatHenry laughed He pointed to a student nearby with a large MIT emblazoned on hissweatshirt Got ya that time Henry saidMainly though he leads a life of quiet confusion never knowing exactly how old he is (heguesses maybe thirty and is always surprised by his reflection in the mirror) and reliving hisgrief over the death of his mother every time he hears about it Though he does not recall hisoperation he knows that there is something wrong with his memory and has adopted aphilosophical stance on his problems It does get me upset but I always say to myself whatis to be is to be Thats the way I always figure it nowOften Henry will express the hope that others can learn from his unfortunate situation as hetold Philip Hilts in an interview several years agoWell what I keep thinking is that possibly I had an operation And somehow the memory isgoneAnd Im trying to figure it outI think of it all the time I dont remember this and whyI dont remember thatIs that worrisome Hilts wanted to knowWell it isnt worrisome in a way to me because I know that if they ever performed anoperation on me theyd learn from it It would help othersSadly the very nature of his memory loss prevents Henry from ever knowing the incrediblecontribution he has made to the field of psychology but his tale stands as an importantprologue to the ongoing story of memory research Long after Henry passes on HM willbe studied as the man whose unwitting sacrifice first vividly illustrated the important link

between memory and brain

Langue et Affaires Anglais Lecture 1 Business organization in Britain and the USA

1 Introduction What is a business - The 3 sectors of the economy - Business strategy The purpose of this lesson is to discuss the main business organizations of britain and america Brief definition of a business and give an overview of the 3 sectors of the economy

What is a business An organized effort to produce goods or services which can be supplied to satisfy the needs and wants of customers in exchange of a reward or payment which will give the producer or supplier an adequate return on his investment There are many different types of businesses Some are small local firms others are large companies make trade internationally or nationally Some may produce or sell goods whereas others provide a service Some do both such as computer stores that offer advice and maintenance to customers Some organizations are classified as businesses even though we may not think of them in this way ( football clubs or charities ) Businesses exist for a purpose A business needs funds Finance is usually the hardest thing to obtain A business needs customers and suppliers who provide many of the inputs such as raw materials Premises ex an office or a factory Management and organization A business may also need to protect its ideas or products through patents and copyright which make it illegal for other firms to copy directly the business idea or invention or by keeping new products secret until they are ready to launch by focussing on retaining key staff A business needs to have clear objectives An objective is a target that a business sets itself Difference between long and short term targets The targets must be regularly reviewed so that the business can measure its progress There are several objectives -Survive in the market -Break-even = cover costs -High motivation amongst its employees -Maximize profits -grow in size export -diversify and sell different products -Make returns to shareholders ( actionnaires ) of limited companies

2 Types of business Introduction Public sector and private sector

A) Sole tradersB) Partnerships The general partners The sleeping partners The salaried partner C) Limited companyIntroduction Definition of a limited company - Private limited companies - Public limited companies

D) FranchisingE) Types of businesses in AmericaF) Mergeers and acquisitionsG) Groups parent companies and subsidiaries H) Multinational and conglomeratesI) Blue chips

Conclusion

word order are resistant to any effect of the learners age In their book In Other WordsBialystok and Hakuta state that syntax remains accessible throughout life even though thecircumstances of our lives may muddy that access Overall the amazing human ability tolearn grammar they argue remains with us as long as we remain humanPhonological Acquisition Is Age-SensitiveUnlike grammar learning second-language phonological acquisition is subject to a sensitiveperiod The decline in unaccented learning of a foreign language is progressive howeverand not characterized by a predictably abrupt change According to a study by James Flegesimilar and not entirely novel sounds are the ones that are affected by age In other wordsnew sounds are easier to pronounce with native-like accuracy than sounds that are similar butnot identical to those found in ones first languageAccording to Bruer we know almost nothing about the stages within the critical period forphonological learning We do know Bruer continues that the system remains plastic andable to tune itself to a second phonologyuntil early in the second decade of lifeVocabulary Learning Has No Critical PeriodOf vocabulary acquisition in ones first language Singleton writes there is no point at whichvocabulary acquisition can be predicted to cease There is also Singleton suggests nocritical period for learning vocabulary in a second languageAccording to the results of a study by Helen Neville using brain recordings semanticinformation seems to be processed in the same way by both speakers of English as a secondlanguage and native English speakers throughout life In The Myth of the First Three YearsBruer relates this consistency in how we acquire vocabulary throughout life to brainmaturation how we process vocabulary does not change with brain maturation as one wouldexpect it would if it were a form of time-limited experience-expectant learning It seemsinstead that the neural circuitry we need to process semantic information and learn vocabularycomes on-line early in development and does not change as we matureConclusion Younger = Better in the Long RunIt may be that the image of a window slamming shut as an analogy for the effect of age onones ability to acquire a foreign language should be replaced by Bruers analogy of areservoir that gradually evaporates This analogy suggests a progressive rather than abruptdecline in ability over time Regarding critical periods in second-language acquisitionBialystok and Hakuta suggest that the difference between child and adult learners is morequantitative (or a matter of degree) than qualitative Overallthe evidence of a critical periodfor acquiring a second language is at best confusing Although the evidence argueBialystok and Hakuta indicates that the learning process is the same for both adults andchildren and that second-language learning is not necessarily subject to biological criticalperiods they do state that on average there is a continuous decline in ability with ageOlder beginners often show an initial advantage over younger beginners in learning a newlanguage however over time the younger beginners usually overtake the older beginnersThere seems then to be according to Bialystok and Hakuta a tortoise-and-the-hare effector as Singleton has put it younger = better in the long run For this reason we should by nomeans discount the importance of learning a second language early As Bruer states Thebrain and early childhood literature is correct to emphasize that second-language learning isincreasingly important and that often American schools provide too little language instructiontoo lateWhat should be questioned or re-evaluated are the underlying assumptions that side-step theissue of how best to teach foreign languages The age at which one first encounters a secondlanguage explains Singleton is only one of the many determinants of the ultimate level ofproficiency attained in that language We must not neglect other considerations includingwhat neuroscience is now telling us about how second languages might best be taught andlearnedTexte 4The Day His World Stood Stillby Joanna SchaffhausenWhen twenty-seven year old Henry M entered the hospital in 1953 for radical brain surgerythat was supposed to cure his epilepsy he was hopeful that the procedure would change hislife for the better Instead it trapped him in a mental time warp where TV is always a newinvention and Truman is forever president The removal of large sections of his temporallobes left Henry unable to form any new personal memories but his tragic loss revolutionized

the field of psychology and made HM the most-studied individual in the history of brainresearchHenry grew up outside of Hartford Connecticut and was by all accounts an amiable youngman with above average intelligence He liked to go ice skating and to listen to mystery showson the radio which he enjoyed because he could often deduce the villain ahead of theprogram detective Then on his sixteenth birthday Henry had his first grand mal seizureduring a celebratory trip to the city with his parents After that point the paralyzing seizuresarrived with increasing frequency until by the summer of 1953 he was experiencing as manyas eleven episodes per week He was unable to hold a steady job and his prospects forindependent living seemed dim There were not many effective treatments available forepilepsy in 1953 so it was with a mixture of hope and trepidation that Henrys family turnedto Dr William Scoville and his experimental surgeryThe Day His World Stood Still - Page 2The Fateful SurgeryThe idea behind the surgery was simple Seizures as Scoville correctly reasoned are causedby uncontrolled electrical impulses that start in a localized area and then spread throughoutthe rest of the brain If one could remove the part of the brain where the seizures originated itshould be possible to cure the epilepsy Henry had the most common form of the diseasecalled temporal lobe epilepsy which meant that his seizures began in the tissue located oneither side of his brain Dr Scoville removed a large chunk of Henrys right and left temporallobes which was a crucial decision because the brain is symmetrical and thus most importantstructures are duplicated Altogether Henry lost about a fist-sized portion of his brain whichencompassed (on both sides) the hippocampus the amygdala and the entorhinal andperirhinal cortices As it turns out the hippocampus is crucial for memory storage When helost his hippocampi Henry became frozen in 1953 remembering very well the events beforehis operation but unable to create any new memories He describes the experience like thisRight now Im wondering have I done or said anything amiss You see at this momenteverything looks clear to me but what happened just before Thats what worries me Its likewaking from a dream I just dont rememberWhat Henry Can Remember And What He CannotAt the time of Henrys surgery the study of memory was mostly limited to philosophicalwritings and introspective probing like the kind practiced by Sigmund Freud In the 1930sKarl Lashley began a systematic quest to find the exact location of memory in the brain Hetaught rats and monkeys a variety of tasks then destroyed a part of their brain reasoning thatif the animals could not remember after the lesion then he must have found the place wherememories reside After years of frustration Lashley concluded that nothing short of nearcomplete destruction of the brain caused the animals to forget their tasks and it seemed thatbiological study of memory was not possibleThen word began to spread of patient HM who had very localized brain damage but extremememory deficits Scientists were very interested in the precise nature of Henrys amnesia andbegan a careful study of which parts of his memory had been erased by the surgery and whichparts remained intact As noted before he had good recall of facts learned before hisoperation meaning that his long-term memory was unharmed Also Henry was able to holdinformation in storage for very short periods of time Most people can retain about sevenpieces of information (a telephone number for example) in memory for about thirty secondsand Henry scored normally on these kinds of tasks Thus his working memory (or scratchpadmemory) seemed unaffected by the loss of his hippocampus The main problem for Henrywas converting short-term memories into permanent storage a process called consolidationBased on the patterns of Henrys memory loss researchers formed the following hypothesesabout memory formation1) Short-term memories are biologically different from long-term memories because they donot require the hippocampus for formation2) Long-term memories are stored throughout the brain but the hippocampus is necessary forthe information to reach long-term storage Once the memory is permanently stored howeverthe hippocampus is no longer required Said another way the hippocampus is important forlong-term memory formation but not for memory maintenance or retrievalThis would explain why Henry can remember the events prior to his surgery but not store anynew memories afterward Even with thousands of repetitions he is unable to learn new factsHis doctors must reintroduce themselves each morning and Henry is never sure where he is

for very long Yet even as they marvel at the extent of his memory loss researchers havefound one other kind of memory task that Henry can perform normally skill learningOften termed procedural memory skill learning is a kind of unconscious memory Youmight recall your tennis lessons very well but when you hit the ball over the net there is noconscious awareness of each muscle group involved in the task Your backhand is simplyautomatic For Henry these kinds of motor skills are also automatic He does not rememberlearning them but his performance improves over time Learning to trace a star using areflection in the mirror for example is a task that most people do not do well the first timethey try it But with practice it becomes quite easy Henry shows the same kind ofimprovement on the star-tracing task even though each time he tries it he claims to havenever attempted it before Thus skill learning appears to be a special kind of long-memorythat does not require the hippocampusHenry Right NowStudy of Henrys case has led to some very seminal findings about memory Specifically itseems that the hippocampus is required for the formation of conscious long-term memoriesbut not for unconscious long-term skill memories or short-term recall Perhaps even moreimportantly Henry has vividly illustrated that there is a biological basis for memory and thatit is possible to use biological techniques to study a subject as elusive as memoryAs for Henrys current status he lives in a nursing home in Hartford and still travelsoccasionally to MIT for memory testing He enjoys doing crossword puzzles and watchingdetective shows on television His life is peaceful if not completely happy He worries oftenthat he has done something wrong and it is not possible for him to make any real friendssince he cannot remember a person from ten minutes to the next At times he seems to have asense of humor about his condition as in the following anecdote taken from his biographyMemorys Ghost The Strange Tale of Mr M and the Nature of Memory by Philip HiltsWhen walking down the corridor at MIT with Henry Dr Suzanne Corkin made the usualkind of small talk Do you know where you are HenryHenry grinned Why of course Im at MITDr Corkin was a bit surprised How do you know thatHenry laughed He pointed to a student nearby with a large MIT emblazoned on hissweatshirt Got ya that time Henry saidMainly though he leads a life of quiet confusion never knowing exactly how old he is (heguesses maybe thirty and is always surprised by his reflection in the mirror) and reliving hisgrief over the death of his mother every time he hears about it Though he does not recall hisoperation he knows that there is something wrong with his memory and has adopted aphilosophical stance on his problems It does get me upset but I always say to myself whatis to be is to be Thats the way I always figure it nowOften Henry will express the hope that others can learn from his unfortunate situation as hetold Philip Hilts in an interview several years agoWell what I keep thinking is that possibly I had an operation And somehow the memory isgoneAnd Im trying to figure it outI think of it all the time I dont remember this and whyI dont remember thatIs that worrisome Hilts wanted to knowWell it isnt worrisome in a way to me because I know that if they ever performed anoperation on me theyd learn from it It would help othersSadly the very nature of his memory loss prevents Henry from ever knowing the incrediblecontribution he has made to the field of psychology but his tale stands as an importantprologue to the ongoing story of memory research Long after Henry passes on HM willbe studied as the man whose unwitting sacrifice first vividly illustrated the important link

between memory and brain

Langue et Affaires Anglais Lecture 1 Business organization in Britain and the USA

1 Introduction What is a business - The 3 sectors of the economy - Business strategy The purpose of this lesson is to discuss the main business organizations of britain and america Brief definition of a business and give an overview of the 3 sectors of the economy

What is a business An organized effort to produce goods or services which can be supplied to satisfy the needs and wants of customers in exchange of a reward or payment which will give the producer or supplier an adequate return on his investment There are many different types of businesses Some are small local firms others are large companies make trade internationally or nationally Some may produce or sell goods whereas others provide a service Some do both such as computer stores that offer advice and maintenance to customers Some organizations are classified as businesses even though we may not think of them in this way ( football clubs or charities ) Businesses exist for a purpose A business needs funds Finance is usually the hardest thing to obtain A business needs customers and suppliers who provide many of the inputs such as raw materials Premises ex an office or a factory Management and organization A business may also need to protect its ideas or products through patents and copyright which make it illegal for other firms to copy directly the business idea or invention or by keeping new products secret until they are ready to launch by focussing on retaining key staff A business needs to have clear objectives An objective is a target that a business sets itself Difference between long and short term targets The targets must be regularly reviewed so that the business can measure its progress There are several objectives -Survive in the market -Break-even = cover costs -High motivation amongst its employees -Maximize profits -grow in size export -diversify and sell different products -Make returns to shareholders ( actionnaires ) of limited companies

2 Types of business Introduction Public sector and private sector

A) Sole tradersB) Partnerships The general partners The sleeping partners The salaried partner C) Limited companyIntroduction Definition of a limited company - Private limited companies - Public limited companies

D) FranchisingE) Types of businesses in AmericaF) Mergeers and acquisitionsG) Groups parent companies and subsidiaries H) Multinational and conglomeratesI) Blue chips

Conclusion

the field of psychology and made HM the most-studied individual in the history of brainresearchHenry grew up outside of Hartford Connecticut and was by all accounts an amiable youngman with above average intelligence He liked to go ice skating and to listen to mystery showson the radio which he enjoyed because he could often deduce the villain ahead of theprogram detective Then on his sixteenth birthday Henry had his first grand mal seizureduring a celebratory trip to the city with his parents After that point the paralyzing seizuresarrived with increasing frequency until by the summer of 1953 he was experiencing as manyas eleven episodes per week He was unable to hold a steady job and his prospects forindependent living seemed dim There were not many effective treatments available forepilepsy in 1953 so it was with a mixture of hope and trepidation that Henrys family turnedto Dr William Scoville and his experimental surgeryThe Day His World Stood Still - Page 2The Fateful SurgeryThe idea behind the surgery was simple Seizures as Scoville correctly reasoned are causedby uncontrolled electrical impulses that start in a localized area and then spread throughoutthe rest of the brain If one could remove the part of the brain where the seizures originated itshould be possible to cure the epilepsy Henry had the most common form of the diseasecalled temporal lobe epilepsy which meant that his seizures began in the tissue located oneither side of his brain Dr Scoville removed a large chunk of Henrys right and left temporallobes which was a crucial decision because the brain is symmetrical and thus most importantstructures are duplicated Altogether Henry lost about a fist-sized portion of his brain whichencompassed (on both sides) the hippocampus the amygdala and the entorhinal andperirhinal cortices As it turns out the hippocampus is crucial for memory storage When helost his hippocampi Henry became frozen in 1953 remembering very well the events beforehis operation but unable to create any new memories He describes the experience like thisRight now Im wondering have I done or said anything amiss You see at this momenteverything looks clear to me but what happened just before Thats what worries me Its likewaking from a dream I just dont rememberWhat Henry Can Remember And What He CannotAt the time of Henrys surgery the study of memory was mostly limited to philosophicalwritings and introspective probing like the kind practiced by Sigmund Freud In the 1930sKarl Lashley began a systematic quest to find the exact location of memory in the brain Hetaught rats and monkeys a variety of tasks then destroyed a part of their brain reasoning thatif the animals could not remember after the lesion then he must have found the place wherememories reside After years of frustration Lashley concluded that nothing short of nearcomplete destruction of the brain caused the animals to forget their tasks and it seemed thatbiological study of memory was not possibleThen word began to spread of patient HM who had very localized brain damage but extremememory deficits Scientists were very interested in the precise nature of Henrys amnesia andbegan a careful study of which parts of his memory had been erased by the surgery and whichparts remained intact As noted before he had good recall of facts learned before hisoperation meaning that his long-term memory was unharmed Also Henry was able to holdinformation in storage for very short periods of time Most people can retain about sevenpieces of information (a telephone number for example) in memory for about thirty secondsand Henry scored normally on these kinds of tasks Thus his working memory (or scratchpadmemory) seemed unaffected by the loss of his hippocampus The main problem for Henrywas converting short-term memories into permanent storage a process called consolidationBased on the patterns of Henrys memory loss researchers formed the following hypothesesabout memory formation1) Short-term memories are biologically different from long-term memories because they donot require the hippocampus for formation2) Long-term memories are stored throughout the brain but the hippocampus is necessary forthe information to reach long-term storage Once the memory is permanently stored howeverthe hippocampus is no longer required Said another way the hippocampus is important forlong-term memory formation but not for memory maintenance or retrievalThis would explain why Henry can remember the events prior to his surgery but not store anynew memories afterward Even with thousands of repetitions he is unable to learn new factsHis doctors must reintroduce themselves each morning and Henry is never sure where he is

for very long Yet even as they marvel at the extent of his memory loss researchers havefound one other kind of memory task that Henry can perform normally skill learningOften termed procedural memory skill learning is a kind of unconscious memory Youmight recall your tennis lessons very well but when you hit the ball over the net there is noconscious awareness of each muscle group involved in the task Your backhand is simplyautomatic For Henry these kinds of motor skills are also automatic He does not rememberlearning them but his performance improves over time Learning to trace a star using areflection in the mirror for example is a task that most people do not do well the first timethey try it But with practice it becomes quite easy Henry shows the same kind ofimprovement on the star-tracing task even though each time he tries it he claims to havenever attempted it before Thus skill learning appears to be a special kind of long-memorythat does not require the hippocampusHenry Right NowStudy of Henrys case has led to some very seminal findings about memory Specifically itseems that the hippocampus is required for the formation of conscious long-term memoriesbut not for unconscious long-term skill memories or short-term recall Perhaps even moreimportantly Henry has vividly illustrated that there is a biological basis for memory and thatit is possible to use biological techniques to study a subject as elusive as memoryAs for Henrys current status he lives in a nursing home in Hartford and still travelsoccasionally to MIT for memory testing He enjoys doing crossword puzzles and watchingdetective shows on television His life is peaceful if not completely happy He worries oftenthat he has done something wrong and it is not possible for him to make any real friendssince he cannot remember a person from ten minutes to the next At times he seems to have asense of humor about his condition as in the following anecdote taken from his biographyMemorys Ghost The Strange Tale of Mr M and the Nature of Memory by Philip HiltsWhen walking down the corridor at MIT with Henry Dr Suzanne Corkin made the usualkind of small talk Do you know where you are HenryHenry grinned Why of course Im at MITDr Corkin was a bit surprised How do you know thatHenry laughed He pointed to a student nearby with a large MIT emblazoned on hissweatshirt Got ya that time Henry saidMainly though he leads a life of quiet confusion never knowing exactly how old he is (heguesses maybe thirty and is always surprised by his reflection in the mirror) and reliving hisgrief over the death of his mother every time he hears about it Though he does not recall hisoperation he knows that there is something wrong with his memory and has adopted aphilosophical stance on his problems It does get me upset but I always say to myself whatis to be is to be Thats the way I always figure it nowOften Henry will express the hope that others can learn from his unfortunate situation as hetold Philip Hilts in an interview several years agoWell what I keep thinking is that possibly I had an operation And somehow the memory isgoneAnd Im trying to figure it outI think of it all the time I dont remember this and whyI dont remember thatIs that worrisome Hilts wanted to knowWell it isnt worrisome in a way to me because I know that if they ever performed anoperation on me theyd learn from it It would help othersSadly the very nature of his memory loss prevents Henry from ever knowing the incrediblecontribution he has made to the field of psychology but his tale stands as an importantprologue to the ongoing story of memory research Long after Henry passes on HM willbe studied as the man whose unwitting sacrifice first vividly illustrated the important link

between memory and brain

Langue et Affaires Anglais Lecture 1 Business organization in Britain and the USA

1 Introduction What is a business - The 3 sectors of the economy - Business strategy The purpose of this lesson is to discuss the main business organizations of britain and america Brief definition of a business and give an overview of the 3 sectors of the economy

What is a business An organized effort to produce goods or services which can be supplied to satisfy the needs and wants of customers in exchange of a reward or payment which will give the producer or supplier an adequate return on his investment There are many different types of businesses Some are small local firms others are large companies make trade internationally or nationally Some may produce or sell goods whereas others provide a service Some do both such as computer stores that offer advice and maintenance to customers Some organizations are classified as businesses even though we may not think of them in this way ( football clubs or charities ) Businesses exist for a purpose A business needs funds Finance is usually the hardest thing to obtain A business needs customers and suppliers who provide many of the inputs such as raw materials Premises ex an office or a factory Management and organization A business may also need to protect its ideas or products through patents and copyright which make it illegal for other firms to copy directly the business idea or invention or by keeping new products secret until they are ready to launch by focussing on retaining key staff A business needs to have clear objectives An objective is a target that a business sets itself Difference between long and short term targets The targets must be regularly reviewed so that the business can measure its progress There are several objectives -Survive in the market -Break-even = cover costs -High motivation amongst its employees -Maximize profits -grow in size export -diversify and sell different products -Make returns to shareholders ( actionnaires ) of limited companies

2 Types of business Introduction Public sector and private sector

A) Sole tradersB) Partnerships The general partners The sleeping partners The salaried partner C) Limited companyIntroduction Definition of a limited company - Private limited companies - Public limited companies

D) FranchisingE) Types of businesses in AmericaF) Mergeers and acquisitionsG) Groups parent companies and subsidiaries H) Multinational and conglomeratesI) Blue chips

Conclusion

for very long Yet even as they marvel at the extent of his memory loss researchers havefound one other kind of memory task that Henry can perform normally skill learningOften termed procedural memory skill learning is a kind of unconscious memory Youmight recall your tennis lessons very well but when you hit the ball over the net there is noconscious awareness of each muscle group involved in the task Your backhand is simplyautomatic For Henry these kinds of motor skills are also automatic He does not rememberlearning them but his performance improves over time Learning to trace a star using areflection in the mirror for example is a task that most people do not do well the first timethey try it But with practice it becomes quite easy Henry shows the same kind ofimprovement on the star-tracing task even though each time he tries it he claims to havenever attempted it before Thus skill learning appears to be a special kind of long-memorythat does not require the hippocampusHenry Right NowStudy of Henrys case has led to some very seminal findings about memory Specifically itseems that the hippocampus is required for the formation of conscious long-term memoriesbut not for unconscious long-term skill memories or short-term recall Perhaps even moreimportantly Henry has vividly illustrated that there is a biological basis for memory and thatit is possible to use biological techniques to study a subject as elusive as memoryAs for Henrys current status he lives in a nursing home in Hartford and still travelsoccasionally to MIT for memory testing He enjoys doing crossword puzzles and watchingdetective shows on television His life is peaceful if not completely happy He worries oftenthat he has done something wrong and it is not possible for him to make any real friendssince he cannot remember a person from ten minutes to the next At times he seems to have asense of humor about his condition as in the following anecdote taken from his biographyMemorys Ghost The Strange Tale of Mr M and the Nature of Memory by Philip HiltsWhen walking down the corridor at MIT with Henry Dr Suzanne Corkin made the usualkind of small talk Do you know where you are HenryHenry grinned Why of course Im at MITDr Corkin was a bit surprised How do you know thatHenry laughed He pointed to a student nearby with a large MIT emblazoned on hissweatshirt Got ya that time Henry saidMainly though he leads a life of quiet confusion never knowing exactly how old he is (heguesses maybe thirty and is always surprised by his reflection in the mirror) and reliving hisgrief over the death of his mother every time he hears about it Though he does not recall hisoperation he knows that there is something wrong with his memory and has adopted aphilosophical stance on his problems It does get me upset but I always say to myself whatis to be is to be Thats the way I always figure it nowOften Henry will express the hope that others can learn from his unfortunate situation as hetold Philip Hilts in an interview several years agoWell what I keep thinking is that possibly I had an operation And somehow the memory isgoneAnd Im trying to figure it outI think of it all the time I dont remember this and whyI dont remember thatIs that worrisome Hilts wanted to knowWell it isnt worrisome in a way to me because I know that if they ever performed anoperation on me theyd learn from it It would help othersSadly the very nature of his memory loss prevents Henry from ever knowing the incrediblecontribution he has made to the field of psychology but his tale stands as an importantprologue to the ongoing story of memory research Long after Henry passes on HM willbe studied as the man whose unwitting sacrifice first vividly illustrated the important link

between memory and brain

Langue et Affaires Anglais Lecture 1 Business organization in Britain and the USA

1 Introduction What is a business - The 3 sectors of the economy - Business strategy The purpose of this lesson is to discuss the main business organizations of britain and america Brief definition of a business and give an overview of the 3 sectors of the economy

What is a business An organized effort to produce goods or services which can be supplied to satisfy the needs and wants of customers in exchange of a reward or payment which will give the producer or supplier an adequate return on his investment There are many different types of businesses Some are small local firms others are large companies make trade internationally or nationally Some may produce or sell goods whereas others provide a service Some do both such as computer stores that offer advice and maintenance to customers Some organizations are classified as businesses even though we may not think of them in this way ( football clubs or charities ) Businesses exist for a purpose A business needs funds Finance is usually the hardest thing to obtain A business needs customers and suppliers who provide many of the inputs such as raw materials Premises ex an office or a factory Management and organization A business may also need to protect its ideas or products through patents and copyright which make it illegal for other firms to copy directly the business idea or invention or by keeping new products secret until they are ready to launch by focussing on retaining key staff A business needs to have clear objectives An objective is a target that a business sets itself Difference between long and short term targets The targets must be regularly reviewed so that the business can measure its progress There are several objectives -Survive in the market -Break-even = cover costs -High motivation amongst its employees -Maximize profits -grow in size export -diversify and sell different products -Make returns to shareholders ( actionnaires ) of limited companies

2 Types of business Introduction Public sector and private sector

A) Sole tradersB) Partnerships The general partners The sleeping partners The salaried partner C) Limited companyIntroduction Definition of a limited company - Private limited companies - Public limited companies

D) FranchisingE) Types of businesses in AmericaF) Mergeers and acquisitionsG) Groups parent companies and subsidiaries H) Multinational and conglomeratesI) Blue chips

Conclusion

What is a business An organized effort to produce goods or services which can be supplied to satisfy the needs and wants of customers in exchange of a reward or payment which will give the producer or supplier an adequate return on his investment There are many different types of businesses Some are small local firms others are large companies make trade internationally or nationally Some may produce or sell goods whereas others provide a service Some do both such as computer stores that offer advice and maintenance to customers Some organizations are classified as businesses even though we may not think of them in this way ( football clubs or charities ) Businesses exist for a purpose A business needs funds Finance is usually the hardest thing to obtain A business needs customers and suppliers who provide many of the inputs such as raw materials Premises ex an office or a factory Management and organization A business may also need to protect its ideas or products through patents and copyright which make it illegal for other firms to copy directly the business idea or invention or by keeping new products secret until they are ready to launch by focussing on retaining key staff A business needs to have clear objectives An objective is a target that a business sets itself Difference between long and short term targets The targets must be regularly reviewed so that the business can measure its progress There are several objectives -Survive in the market -Break-even = cover costs -High motivation amongst its employees -Maximize profits -grow in size export -diversify and sell different products -Make returns to shareholders ( actionnaires ) of limited companies

2 Types of business Introduction Public sector and private sector

A) Sole tradersB) Partnerships The general partners The sleeping partners The salaried partner C) Limited companyIntroduction Definition of a limited company - Private limited companies - Public limited companies

D) FranchisingE) Types of businesses in AmericaF) Mergeers and acquisitionsG) Groups parent companies and subsidiaries H) Multinational and conglomeratesI) Blue chips

Conclusion