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Pest managementguide

Pest management guide

Index Species

01 Phytophthora spp.

02 Pucciniastrum epilobii

03 Rhabdocline pseudotsugae

04 Sirococcus conigenus

05 Verticillium dahliae, V. albo-atrum

06 Agrilus biguttatus

07 Agrilus planipennis

08 Agrilus viridis

09 Anoplophora chinensis, Anoplophora malasiaca

10 Anoplophora glabripennis

11 Bursaphelenchus xylophilus

12 Cephalcia spp.

13 Corythucha arcuata

14 Cryphalus piceae

15 Diprion pini, Neodiprion sertifer

16 Dryocosmus kuriphilus

17 Ips amitinus

18 Ips cembrae

19 Ips typographus

Index Species

20 Leperisinus varius = Hylesinus varius

21 Leptoglossus occidentalis

22 Lymantria dispar

23 Phaenops cyanea = Melanophila cyanea

24 Pityocteines (Ips) curvidens, P.spinidens, P. vorontzove

25 Pityogenes chalcographus

26 Pityophthorus pityographus

27 Tetropium gracilicorne

28 Thaumetopoea pityocampa

29 Thaumetopoea processionea

30 Tomicus destruens

31 Tomicus spp. (Tomicus piniperda & Tomicus minor)

32 Tortrix viridana

33 Viscum album ssp. Album

34 Viscum album ssp. abieti

35 Viscum album ssp. austriacum

36 Armillaria spp.

37 Chalara fraxinea

Index Species

38 Chrysomyxa abietis

39 Cryphonectria parasitica

40 Sphaeropsis sapinea

41 Eutypella parasitica

42 Gibberella circinata

43 Herpotrichia juniperi

44 Heterobasidion annosum

45 Meria laricis

46 Mycosphaerella dearnessii

47 Mycosphaerella pini

48 Neonectria coccinea

49 Ophiostoma ulmi, O. novo-ulmi

50 Phacidium infestans

51 Phaeocryptopus gaeumannii

IndexPhytophthora spp.01

Phytophthora spp.

Phytophtora root rot (Engl.), Wurzelhalsfäule (Deut.), ? (Franc.), ? (Ital.),Fitoftorna sušica vejic (Slowen.)

Host speciesVarious woody plants, dominantly deciduous trees, rarely conifers. In urban areas a severe pro-blem mainly on horse chestnut.

Symptomdroplets of dark reddish brown liquid on the bark (“bleeding”) If the outer bark is scraped away, a dark brown canker surrounded by a dark line is visible in the inner bark. Bleeding canker can girdle the tree and then the leaves turn brown and the entire crown dies.

Causal agentPhytophthora species; destructive, soil borne parasitic fungi causing brown rot in trees, in-fection mainly via motile, flagellated spores which actively swim to the fine roots in the soil water. Spores penetrate the roots and develop into a mycelium growing towards the stem. Infection causes loss of fines roots and girdling of stem which lead to water stress for the tree. Long distance spread of pathogen by infested soil and plant material. (Phytophthora ramorum Quarantine organism!).

Possibilities of errorsRoot rot of different origin, sap flow due to cracks and insect holes.

EffectsStrong dieback, tree death may occur within several months to several years after initial in-fection.

ControlCurative measures successful only in nurseries with young trees and in early stages of the di-sease by application of special fungicides. Effective control measures for trees have not been developed If suspected that a tree is suffering from disease caused by quarantine organism such as P. ramorum immediately inform National plant protection service.

IndexPucciniastrum epilobii02

Pucciniastrum epilobii

Silver fir needle rust (Engl.), Tannennadelrost (Deut.), rouille du fuchsia (Franc.), ? (Ital.),Rja jelovih iglic (Slowen.)

Host speciesFir SymptomsYoung needles in early summer show white, column shaped structures (Aecidia) on the bot-tom side, which release orange yellow spore dust. The infected needles become first yellow and later brown. Needles are shed in the second half of the year. The shoots rarely die but sometimes show distortion. Causal agentFir needle rust requires a second host. Therefore infested sites are restricted and related to spe-cies of Epilobium or Vaccinium in close vicinity. Weather conditions during time of infection (air humidity) are an additional triggering factor. The transmission from Fir to Fir or older needles is impossible. Possibilities of errors- EffectsLoss of needles. Apical shoot is usually uninfected because it grows later. After repeated infes-tation a loss in growth is expected. With very high infection pressure damage and die back of shoots is possible. ControlMeasures are recommended only in Christmas tree cultivations or heavy infested areas. Careful application of herbicides to remove the secondary host.

IndexRhabdocline pseudotsugae03

Rhabdocline pseudotsugae

Rhabdocline needle cast (Engl.), rostige Douglasienschütte (Deut.), flétrissement des aiguilles du sapin Douglas (Franc.), ? (Ital.), Rdeči osip duglazije (Slowen.)

Host speciesDouglas fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii)

SymptomsAutumn small yellow dots form on the upper and lower surface side of current-year needles.In winter the spots colour turns from orange to later brown. In spring fruiting body of the fun-gus (Apothecia) development appear on each side of the needles midrib of the lower surface. The epidermis lifts off and exposes an orange to brown fungus structure. Infected needles fall off by June to July.

Causal agentOf local importance as a needle cast fungus, following rainy springs. In moist weather and low temperature re-infection only of the new growing needles by spores from the infected needles which remained at the twig. The needle turns brown and falls off after the spores release The disease occurred epidemic in the last past decades.

Possibilities of errors-

EffectsThe tree is more sensitive to frost than usual. Repeated, heavy infestation leads to significantly lower growth and the gradual death of trees.

ControlIn general not necessary. Proper choice of seed origin, use soils with good drainage, space plants for good air circulation, dispose of heavily infested individual trees.

IndexSirococcus conigenus04

Sirococcus conigenus

Sirococcus shoot blight (Engl.), Fichten Triebsterben (Deut.), dépérissement des pousses de l‘épicéa (Franc.), ? (Ital.), Sušica smrekovih poganjkov (Slowen.)

Host species Picea abies, P. pungens, P. sitchensis, P. rubens, P. mariana, P. glauca, rarely other conifers such as Pinus contorta, P. resinosa, P. jeffreyi and Tsuga heterophylla.

SymptomsDeveloping shoots in May at first discolour, bend and finally hang down. Later on they turn brown and fall off in the course of weeks. In the autumn, fruiting bodies appear as black spots on the bark of the dry shoots.

Causal agentMicrofungus only known in its asexual stage; frequently in foggy areas, on humid sites, further-more in cool springs with rain during the flushing time. The fungus survives as a saprophyte on scales of dry galls of Spruce Gall aphids (Sacchiphantes spp.). Furthermore, spruces on poor sites (nutrient deficiencies) are highly susceptible.

Possibilities of errorsOther dieback causing fungi, Grey mould; spring frost; herbicide damage. The disease can be mistaken for Grey mould or for Spruce cone rust, which may also infect current years shoots, but here the symptoms appear later in the year (length growth nearly terminated), and there is a blackish stain of the bark.

EffectsRepeated infections may cause deformation, growth loss and dieback of crown parts Seedlings can be killed.

ControlUsually no control necessary. Fungicide treatment advisable in the middle of May when the shoots are only a few centimeters long. Cool, humid and shady conditions favour infection.

IndexVerticillium dahliae, V. albo-atrum05

Verticillium dahliae, V. albo-atrum

Maple Wilt (Engl.), Verticillium-Welke (Deut.), fletrissure verticillienne, verticilliose (Franc.), tracheo-verticilliosi (Ital.), ? (Slowen.)

Host species Maples, ash, horse chestnut, limes, catalpa, sumac, other deciduous trees.

SymptomsLeaves and shoot-tips wilt, then die later. Cross sections show greenish or grayish-green dis-coloration in the sapwood, appearing as a ring, in longitudinal section as a stripe; the discolo-ration is a consequence of fungal hyphae growing in the vessels; this results in plugging of the vessels and wilting of the tree. Sectorial chlorosis and/or necrosis of leaf tissue may be the onlyexternal symptom of disease. Causal agentMore common on young plants than on older trees. Microscopic fungus, infection via root- and twig-injuries or from soil (as a consequence of long viable permanent stages of the fungus). Diseases caused by V. dahliae are favoured by moderate to high temperatures, althoughtemperatures above 30 ° C are inhibitor.

Possibilities of errorsAbiotic agents, esp. spring frost, Grey mould, Dutch elm disease.

EffectsSensitive tree species and young trees may die in the first year after infection, older or less sensitive trees may show a chronic course of the disease, with a characteristic thin canopy and a sectoral death in parts of the crown.

ControlCurative measures successful only in case of low infestation-intensity: extensive watering and application of ammonium-fertilisers (never nitrate!) may enhance vitality. Avoid wounds on roots; disinfect pruning equipment; on stands with contaminated soil choose less sensitive tree species for re-afforestation; exchange of soil before replanting, plant material should be free from the fungus.

IndexAgrilus biguttatus06

Agrilus biguttatus

oak splendour beetle (Engl.), zweipunktartiger Eichenprachtkäfer (Deut.), ? (Franc.), ? (Ital.), agrilus biguttatus fabricius (Slowen.)

Host species Main host Oak species; others are chestnut and beech.

SymptomsTypical crescent-shaped exit hole of the young beetle; dark spots on the trunk from mucus flow; early yellowing and wilting of individual branches or the whole tree crown; early leaf fall; Dead twigs; increased of impact woodpecker; detachment of the bark; typical feeding tunnels of the larvae´s.

Causal agentbeetle: 9-12mm; shiny metallic green; white spot on each wing cover; maturation feeding on leaves; Larva: white, legless, widened chest ring and two horny spikes at the last abdomen; the feeding tunnels of the larvae run zigzag and are provided with cloudy drillings; the larva of the oak splendor beetle can be found to 15 cm below the surface at strong roots; heat- and light-loving secondary pest; usually infest weakened but living oaks; the development usually takes two years.

Possibilities of errorsMechanical damage caused by faulty tree-anchoring, after exposing the larvae tunnels no possibility of confusion; other splendor beetle.

EffectsDamage only caused by larva: in extreme cases, trees are dying as a result from interruption of sap flow in tree; growth losses.

ControlPreventive measures: location-specific forestry and mixed cultures, protection against insect damage; Removal of infested trees; debarking of infested trees (bark: burning, removal); no storing of firewood with bark in the forest.

IndexAgrilus planipennis07

Agrilus planipennis

emerald ash borer (Engl.), Eschenbastkäfer (Deut.), agrile du frêne (Franc.), ? (Ital.), ? (Slowen.) Agrilus planipennis (Lat.)

Host species Main host ash species (Fraxinus spp.); others Juglans mandshurica, Pterocarya rhoifolia, Ulmus davidiana and Ulmus propinqua.

SymptomsSapwood: long serpentine galleries (up to 26-32 mm long); enlarge as larvae grow; filled with brownish sawdust and frass. Vertical splits, 5-10 cm long, in the bark above a gallery (caused by callus tissue). ‚D‘-shaped (3-4 mm diameter) exit holes on trunks and branches. Yellowing and thinning of the foliage; dying of branches, crown dieback, detachment of bark; plant dead. Basal sprouting and the presence of woodpeckers.

Causal agentThe adults are 8.5-14.0 mm long and 3.1-3.4 mm wide. The body is narrow and elongate, cu-neiform and metallic blue-green. The compound eyes are kidney-shaped. The head is flat and the vertex is shield-shaped; adult feed on the foliage.The mature larvae are 26-32 mm long and creamy-white. The body is flat and broad. The head is small and brown and retracted into the prothorax, exposing only the mouthparts. The prothorax is enlarged and the meso- and meta-thorax are slightly narrower. The larvae typically feed in the cambium of trees or in the stems of vines and small woody plants. typically has one generation per year. mature larvae overwinter in pupal cells. Eggs are laid individually on the bark surface, inside bark cracks and crevasses. Attacks mostly weakened ash trees.


Effectsdying of branches, crown dieback, detachment of bark and eventually death of the tree after 2 to 3 years of infestation.

ControlNo effective control methods are currently available. Infested trees containing larvae and pupae can be cut and chipped. Restrict the movement of ash trees, firewood, branches and logs from infested.

IndexAgrilus viridis08

Agrilus viridis

beech splendor beetle (Engl.), Buchenprachtkäfer (Deut.), agrile du hetre, bupreste vert (Franc.), Agrilo del faggio, Agrilo verde (Ital.), Zeleni Bukov Krasnik (Slowen.)

Host species Beech, alder, lime oak, birch, willow and maple.

Symptomsexit hole of the young beetle; bright spots due to tree sap; early yellowing and wilting of individual branches or the whole tree crown; early leaf fall; Dead twigs; increased of impact woodpecker; detachment of the bark; typical feeding tunnels of the larvae; irregular swelling of the bark.

Causal agentbeetle: 5-11mm; shiny metallic blue to green to gold or brass color, elongated beetle;maturation feeding on young beeches; Larva: white, legless, widened chest ring, a big head and two horny spikes at the last abdomen the feeding tunnels of the larvae between phloem and sapwood run zigzag and are provided with cloudy drillings; the development usually takes two years.

Possibilities of errorsLonghorn beetles, weevils and other splendor beetle.

EffectsDamage only caused by larva: usually leads to death in younger trees as a result from interrup-tion of sap flow in tree; wood devaluation. ControlAvoid bark damage, increase vitality; removal of infested trees; debarking of infested trees (bark: burning, chopped); no storing of firewood with bark in the forest.

Index Anoplophora chinensis,Anoplophora malasiaca09

Anoplophora chinensis,Anoplophora malasiaca

citrus long-horned beetle (Engl.), Citrusbockkäfer (Deut.), capricorne á points blancs (Franc.), Kitajski Kozliček (Ital.), ? (Slowen.)

Host species Citrus, maple, sycamore, birch, hornbeam, beech and around 100 other deciduous woody species.

Symptoms3-4 mm wide, T-shaped slits in the bark; Discharge of drilling chips at the trunk base and roots from oval, round exit holes of 10-20 mm in diameter. Wilting symptoms.

Causal agentBeetle: Typically cerambycid in shape, adults are black and shiny, 21 (male) to 37 (female) mm long, with long black antennae with a blue-grey base.; granulare Elytra Basis; Elytral pu-bescence form several irregular, white to blue hair spots and usually covering the scutellum; A. malasiaca has two bluish-white hair spots on either side of the pronotum, whereas the pronotum of A. chinensis is entirely black; maturation deeding on bark, twigs and leaves; Oviposition in T-shaped slits in the bark; Larva: up to 56mm long; pale yellowish-white, with the anterior part of the head brown, legglees.

Possibilities of errorsBeetles and larvae are very similar to those of the Asian Longhorned Beetle. The citrus longhorn beetle, unlike the ALB has a granulare elytra base (approach), the rest is smooth. The larvae can be confused with other native longhorn beetles. Other native Monochamus-species.

Effectscause serious damage to healthy fruit, ornamental and amenity trees; more readily susceptible to diseases and wind damage. Trees dies after e few years of infestation; Sap flow interruption in the tree; Exit holes are a possible entry for pathogens.

ControlQuarantine organism: Report suspected Anoplophora chinensis to the Plant Protection Service; capture of beetles ; cut and burn heavily infested trees and their root system; Insecticide treat-ments are used against A. malasiaca in citrus orchards in Japan; Protecting trunks with fine wire mesh to prevent oviposition; Importation of Citrus plants for planting is already prohibited or restricted.

IndexAnoplophora glabripennis10

Anoplophora glabripennis

Asian long-horned beetle (Engl.), asiatische Laubholzbockkäfer (Deut.), ? (Franc.), ? (Ital.), Azijski Kozliček (Slowen.)

Host species Deciduous trees, especially maple, poplar, sycamore, horse chestnut.

SymptomsResin bleeds from oviposition holes and larval tunnels in the bark. Larval galleries (30mm) under the bark and later, tunnels in the wood. Masses of wood shavings extruding from round exit holes (10 mm) are also signs that adults have emerged from infested wood. Piles of wood shavings also collect at the base of infested trees; wilting symptoms in the crown.

Causal agentBeetle:Typically cerambycid in shape, 25 mm (male) to 35 mm (female) long. Antennae 2.5 times body length in males; 1.3 times body length in females; antennae have 11 segments, each with a whitish blue base; body shiny black with about 20 irregular, white spots on the ely-tra; maturations feeding on leaves, petioles and young bark; oviposition under the bark in slits; Larva: The larva is a legless grub up to 50 mm long when fully grown. It is creamy white, with a chitinized brown mark on the prothorax; Pupation in chambers in the heartwood, with characte-ristic wood ‚shavings‘ that are packed into the chamber; can attack healthy trees as well as trees under stress; A. glabripennis is indigenous to China (distribution: plant material, wood packing).

Possibilities of errorsNative Monochamus-species; Leopard moth and Goat moth; on poplar large and small poplar longhorned beetle and fox-colored sawfly; Similar to Anoplophora chinensis, and Anoplophora malasiaca.

Effectscause serious damage to healthy fruit, ornamental and amenity trees; more readily susceptible to diseases and wind damage. Trees dies after e few years of heavy infestation; Sap flow inter-ruption in the tree; Exit holes are a possible entry for pathogens.

ControlQuarantine measures: the obligation to notify plant protection service, prohibition of the trans-port of infested wood. With timely detection of the infestation (oviposition sites on the trunk, exudate, maturation feeding in the crown), before the emergence of the beetle the tree is to be cut down and chopped; application of insecticides (China); strong measures have been taken for wood packing materials from China (like heat treatment).

IndexBursaphelenchus xylophilus11

Bursaphelenchus xylophilus

pine wood nematode (Engl.), ? (Deut.), nématode des pins, nématode du bois de pin (Franc.), ? (Ital.), Borova Ogorčica (Slowen.)

Host species Pine species; other conifers.

SymptomsSudden wilting of crown parts or the entire tree crown, at first pale yellow coloration, which changes very rapidly in orange-red to reddish-brown discoloration of the needles, the sap-wood discolors quickly blue with the lack of insects (bark beetles, etc.), who could spread the blue stain fungi.

Causal agentQuarantine pest! Roundworm (nematode), 0.5 - 0.8 mm small, translucent, crown-like head with a mouth sting. Parasite is transmitted by longhorn beetles of the genus Monochamus, multiplies at temperatures between 25 ° and 30 ° C rapidly, damaging the cambium tissue and clogs the pathways of the sapwood. Within the wood the nematodes feed on the hyphae of fungi (usually Ceratocystis species) also transmitted to the wood by ovipositing beetles; only reliable diagnosis by a specialist laboratory; indigenous to North America.

Possibilities of errorsDieback of Pine (Sphaeropsis; Cenangium); Complex disease dying pine; Damages by spring frost; Crown discoloration similar to bark beetle infestation.

Effectsvaries between the tree species, also depending on climatic conditions, usually leads to death of affected conifers.

ControlQuarantine measures: mandatory reporting to the relevant Plant Protection Service! Combat the major vector (Monochamus sp.), Cases of the affected tree, burning of infected material (in place); in the case of individual trees with a particular significance (e.g. religious), infection can be prevented by a prophylactic chemical treatment.

IndexCephalcia spp.12

Cephalcia spp.

spruce webworm (Engl.), Fichtengespinstblattwespe (Deut.), lyde de l‘épicéa (Franc.), lida dell‘abete rosso (Ital.), Smrekova Zapredkarica (Slowen.)

Host species Black pine, white pine, mountain pine (mainly plant troughs), other species of pine, spruce.

SymptomsMore or less large silk nests with abundant faeces of the caterpillars, either last year and older needles (fir plantation-web sawfly, spruce web sawfly) or exclusively on needles of the Mai (Pine cultural cocoon sawfly), until about July / August can be found in the silk nests one or more after caterpillars cocoon tubes. Thinning of the tree crown.

Causal agentSawflies, larvae (+ / - olive green with dark stripes) are from May to July / August in the cocoon, then as nymphs in the topsoil (about lying); 1-3 year generation, so every 2 - 3 years possible outbreaks.

Possibilities of errorsBy pine Spruce bell moth; no errors by spruce.

EffectsDepending on the type of infection/species it can reach dangerous level, at least the host plant is weaken and susceptible to secondary pests; growth losses.

ControlNormally no measurements needed; for small plants and small infestations: clearing out the silk nests, use of insecticides as early as possible because caterpillars cocoon tube are relatively well protected.

IndexCorythucha arcuata13

Corythucha arcuata

oak lace bug (Engl.), amerikanische Eichennetzwanze (Deut.), punaise réticulée du chêne (Franc.), ? (Ital.), ? (Slowen.)

Host species Oaks species.

SymptomsSeverely infected leaves dry up; Premature leaf fall (especially after longer periods of good weather), reduced assimilation; by sucking of the bugs on the oak leaves occur chlorotic, yellow mottles and spots.

Causal agentlace bugs: approximately 3 mm long: overwinter in bark crevices or in leaf litter.After budding of the leaves, oviposition on the underside of leaves; per egg clutch 15 to several 100 spindle-shaped, black eggs. Larvae: dark gray to black and equipped with light spines; late larval stages have some white spots; per year, three or four generations are emerging, which combine in the second half, so that while various development stages can be found.

Possibilities of errorsThe egg masses on the undersides of the leaves are unmistakable. Adult bedbugs can be con-fused with the sycamore lace bug (Corythucha ciliata). The latter, however, has significantly fewer brown spots on.

EffectsInfested oaks do not die, but photosynthesis is limited (reduced assimilation), and the trees may be more susceptible to other pests and diseases; Premature leaf fall.

ControlControl measures are usually not justified and are difficult to perform. Premature sloping leaves, on which there are still larvae, can at best be swept up and destroyed.

IndexCryphalus piceae14

Cryphalus piceae

fir bark beetle (Engl.), kleiner Tannenborkenkäfer (Deut.), petit bostryche du sapin (Franc.), Crifalo dell‘ abete bianco (Ital.), Zrnati Smrekov Lubadar (Slowen.)

Host species Main host fir; others spruce, pine, larch.

SymptomsDetachment of the bark; Resin flow on the twigs, brown wood shavings from small bore holes, browning of branches or the whole crown; under the bark star-shaped galleries visible; larvae, pupae and beetles in the gallerie; bark peeling, higher woodpecker activity; dieback.

Causal agentBeetle: 1,1-1,8 mm long; fron is curved; elytra with few, long and protruding hair; massive maturation feeding in the thin branches of the crowns; larva galleries are radiating; prefers the thin bark on branches and twigs of older weakened fir trees; is also found in broken tree tops and branch material on the ground; 2 generations and sister breeding per year possible; tends to mass propagation; overwinter in the first development stages in the galleries and later on hibernation trees.

Possibilities of errorsOther bark beetle species.

EffectsDeath of the infected branches or the entire tree.

ControlIf individual branches are affected, cut or burn only them before the hatching of the young beetles, or treat them with insecticides (eg. strain retardants); removal and debarking of whole trees to protect uninfested. forest management practice would be to mix fir with broadleaved trees such as Fagus sylvatica, Acer pseudoplatanus; brushwood traps; Removel from snow and storm fallen trees; search for hibernation trees.

IndexDiprion pini, Neodiprion sertifer15

Diprion pini, Neodiprion sertifer

? (Engl.), gemeine Kiefernbuschhornblattwespe, rotgelbe Kiefernbuschhornblattwespe (Deut.), lophyre du pin, diprion du pin (Franc.), Tentredine del pino, tenthredine nerastra del pino (Ital.), Navadna borova grizlica, Rjava borova grizlica (Slowen.)

Host species Pine species; seldom spuce. Symptoms Large larval colonies feed on needles from spring to mid-summer; older needles are fed on down to the needle sheath and the newly developing needles are mainly untouched; older larvae may also consume bark from the older, thin branches. Heavy outbreaks may result in the complete removal of the old foliage. D. pini: egg clusters on the previous year‘s needles; eggs are laid in rows on adjacent needles and are covered by a pale-yellow spumous coating; faeces larval have a characteristic rhombic shape and are green The ovoid brown cocoons on twigs or on overstorey vegetation during summer and in the forest litter close to the tree trunk during autumn and winter; plant dead; dieback.

Causal agentNeodiprion sertifer: Sawflies about 8 mm in size; moth flight in September, laying eggs at this year‘s needles; larvae: gray-green with light and dark longitudinal stripes and a dark head, pupate in the soil, mass multiplication of up to 30 years old trees, is usually over after 3-4 years due to virus infection. Diprion pini: female 8-10,5 mm pale-yellow with black spots on the dorsal side of caput, thorax and abdomen; with serrate antennae; male: black, slender shape. Typical pectinate antennae; larvae: Cylindrical shape; head usually light brown; body light yellow, with black spots on suprapleural lobes. Both species tend to outbreaks; attacked by several hymenopterous and dipterous parasitoids.

Possibilities of errorsway of feeding and the symptoms of defoliation are very similar between many pine sawfly species; other defoliating pests on pine, mainly belonging to the Lepidoptera (Panolis flammea).

Effectstrees recover later in the summer when the new shoots and needles reach their full size. Heavy defoliations in subsequent years may kill buds and twigs. Although extensive mortality seldom occurs, repeated defoliation weakens the trees and increases their susceptibility to attack from secondary pests; Loss in increments.

ControlSpraying with insecticides in May immediately after the occurrence of young larvae, and bio-logical (virus) preparations successfully, Neodiprion sertifer: pheromone traps for trapping of male sawflies; nuclear polyhedrosis virus of N. sertifer (NsNPV); D. pini: control outbreaks by release of the gregarious cocoon parasitoid Dahlbominus fuscipennis (experimental).

IndexDryocosmus kuriphilus16

Dryocosmus kuriphilus

Orientalchestnut Gall Wasp (Engl.), japanische Esskastaniengallwespe (Deut.), Chalcide du chataignier (Franc.), ? (Ital.), Kostanjeva Šiškarica (Slowen.)

Host species Oak species and their hybrids.

SymptomsGalls: unilocular or multilocular, 5–20 mm in diameter, green or rose-coloured, often contai-ning portions of developing leaves, stems and petioles; develop on young twigs, on leaf peti-oles or on the midrib of the leaves; After adult emergence, the gall dries, becomes wood-like, and remains attached to the tree for up to two years. While galls are readily detected on plants or parts of plants, eggs or first instar larvae inside the buds cannot be detected by simple visual inspections. Deformation of leaves.

Causal agentadult: 2.5–3 mm long on average, body is black; legs, scapus and pedicels of antennae, apex of clypeus and mandibles are yellow brown. vertex is black, antennae 14-segmented and pro-podeum with distinct median longitudinal carina; Eggs are deposited by females into the buds of current shoots; larva: 2.5 mm long when fully grown, milky white, without eyes and legs. Pupa: 2.5 mm long, black or dark brown; Early instar larvae overwinter inside chestnut buds; next year development of galls for feeding; Spread by introduction of infested twigs or shoots.

Possibilities of errorsRsembles the European oak cynipid wasp, Dryocosmus cerriphilus giraud, known to induce galls on Quercus cerris only. However, the last has the vertex with large yellowish-red markings, the antennae are 15-segmented, the propodeum without median longitudinal carina.

Effectssignificantly reduced fruit- and shoot development (yield reductions of 50–70%). Severe infestations may result in the decline and death of chestnut trees.

ControlQuarantine organism: New iInfestation must be reported to the Plant Protection Service; infestations in small chestnut orchards may be reduced by pruning and destroying the infes-ted shoots. At present, there are no efficient plant protection products for control of this pest; biological control with a Chinese parasitic wasp successfully in Japan.

IndexIps amitinus17

Ips amitinus

eight-toothed spruce bark beetle (Engl.), kleiner achtzähniger Fichtenborkenkäfer (Deut.), bostryche amitinus, petit bostryche du pin (Franc.), ? (Ital.), Mali Osmerozobi Smrekov Lubadar (Slowen.)

Host species Main host common spruce; other conifers silver fir; common larch and pine species. Symptomsdiscoloured crowns; yellowed or dead leaves; abnormal leaf fall; thinning crown; frass (light-brown sawdust) can be found on the bark in the basal part of the stems of standing trees; increased woodpeckers activity (detachment of bark); gallery systems under the bark extend vertically on the tree, from a nuptial chamber with four to seven irregular and wavy maternal galleries; stem: gummosis or resinosis.

Causal agentbeetle: 3.5-4.5 mm long, cylindrical, dark-brown, shiny and hairy; posterior edges of the elytra form a characteristic collar shape with dents on both side; elytral declivity has four spines on each side, the third spine is the largest and capitate; larvae: 4.5-5.5 mm long, white, cylindrical and legless. They have small, brown, chitinous heads and brown mandibles; usually accompanies Ips typographus and co-exists with the bark beetle, Pityogenes chalcographus; secondary pest (weakend or dying trees); tends to mass propagation.

Possibilities of errorsI. amitinus is similar in all stages of development to Ips typographus and Ips duplicatus.

Effectsheavy infestations can cause death of the tree; often only a few branches or crown parts damaged member of the complex of bark beetles responsible for tree mortality.

Controlremoval of infested trees from stands before the emergence of a new generation of beetles; preventive treatment of neighboring trees with a stem protection insecticide; identification of infested trees is late (advanced development of insects inside the bark), debarking and bark-destroying (processing and composting) are effective; Trap logs.

IndexIps cembrae18

Ips cembrae

large larch bark beetle (Engl.), großer achtzähniger Lärchenborkenkäfer (Deut.), bostryche du meleze, grand, scolyte du cembro (Franc.), Il bostrico del larice, Bostrico del pino cembro (Ital.), Veliki Macesnov Lubadar (Slowen.)

Host species Main host common larch; seldom on spruce, fir; pine or other larch species.

Symptomsfrass (light-brown sawdust); discolored crowns; yellowed or dead leaves; abnormal leaf fall; thinning crown; increased woodpeckers activity (detachment of bark); heavy resin flow; bro-ken off branches on the ground; blue sapwood; breeding galleries under the thick bar;. Most commonly, three female galleries diverge longitudinally from the nuptial chamber, two in one direction and one in the opposite direction. Galleries with one, two or four female galleries are also found. Female galleries are rarely longer than 25 cm, usually 13-17 cm. Causal agentAdult beetles are blackish,yellow hair, 4-6 mm long, four spines on each side of the elytral declivity, the third is the largest and is strongly capitate; 1-2 generation per year + sister brood; maturation feeding in branches of younger trees or near brood gallery; hibernation in breeding tunnels or in thick bark on the ground; secondary pest (breeding in logs, wind-blown stems and dying trees); vector for bluestain fungus (Ceratocystis laricicola).

Possibilities of errorsSimilar to other bark beetle (Ips typographus, Ips amitinus).

Effectsheavy infestations can cause death of the tree; often only a few branches or crown parts damaged.

ControlPheromone trap; spatial or temporal gaps should be left between harvesting and thinning; debarking; removal of infested trees from stands before the emergence of a new generation of beetles;debarking and bark-destroying (processing and composting) are effective; Trap logs; use of Parasitoide; removal of possible breedingnmaterial.

IndexIps typographus19

Ips typographus

European spruce bark beetle (Engl.), Buchdrucker (Deut.), bostryche typographe, grand ron-geur de l‘epicea (Franc.), bostrico tipografo (Ital.), Osmerozobi Smrekov Lubadar (Slowen.)

Host speciesMain host spruce; other conifers larches, firs and pines.

Symptomsdiscoloured crowns, needles are lighter in color, form mats and often fall to the ground ( espe-cially during a mass (rapid) attack, this symptom may be absent);detachment of bark; gallery systems under the bark extend from a nuptial chamber; one to four regular, vertically exten-ding maternal galleries and perpendicular wavy larval galleries; frass (light-brown sawdust); entrance holes; increased woodpeckers activity; dieback.

Causal agentBeetle: 4.2-5.5 mm long, cylindrical, dark-brown, shiny and hairy. The antennae are clavate; rows of depressed points on the glossy elytra, with spaces in between them. The posterior edges of the elytra form a characteristic collar shape, with dents on both sides. There are four teeth on these edges and the third tooth is capitate; larvae: similar size as adults; white, cylindrical and legless, with small, brown, chitinous heads and brown mandibles; larvae, pupae and adults overwinter in the galleries and the adults can also overwinter in stumps; tends to outbreaks; Flight time from April- May and July-August (warm, dry, summers a third generation may be swarming in September.

Possibilities of errorssimilar in all stages of development to Ips duplicatus and Ips amitinus; other small bark beetles (Pityogenes chalcographus).

EffectsIn most cases the trees, which are colonized by bark beetles successfully, die within a few months.

ControlFelling and removal of infested trees from forests. Infested material should be disposed of in any case (burning, chopping, or organic waste removal). Still uninfested trees can be protected with an insecticide treatment or debarking of logs. Monitoring of flight time and population density with pheromone traps; trap-trees or logs; Avoiding of pure spruce stands.

Index Leperisinus variusHylesinus varius20

Leperisinus varius (Hylesinus varius)

ash bark beetle (Engl.), bunter Eschenbastkäfer (Deut.), hylesine du frene (Franc.), Ilesino del frassino (Ital.), Pisani Jesenov Ličar (Slowen.)

Host species Ash, in addition, walnut, oak, pear, maple, hazel, hornbeam. SymptomsWilting of individual branches or the entire crown; drilling dust ejection visible at base of the stem, „Beetle Grind“ barks excrescences due to maturation feeding in healthy tissue - in the crown area or weak stems. Breeding system under the bark with two maternal tunnels, perpendicular to the stem axis. Causal agentBeetle: about 3mm large; black with short hair; infest whipped trees, split wood, or even living, already weakened trees; early flight time from March to May; one generation + sister brood per year. Possibilities of errorsCancer-causing fungi;Bacterial Canker of Ash; The Big Black ash bark beetle (Hylesinus crenatus) but has longer larvae tunnel; lesser pine shoot beetle has similar breeding galleries but puppet cradles in the sapwood. EffectsBeetles usually infest diseased trees and brings them to the death; in outbreaks even healthy trees can be infested. A successful attack is always lethal for the plant. ControlAs with all species of bark beetles is a curative control not possible. Hygiene measures: immediate removal and destruction of infected and freshly dead material, possibly trap trees. No storage of ash firewood in the vicinity of healthy ash trees.

IndexLeptoglossus occidentalis21

Leptoglossus occidentalis

western conifer-seed bug (Engl.), amerikanische Zapfenwanze/ Kiefernrandwanze (Deut.), ? (Franc.), ? (Ital.), Storževa Listonožka (Slowen.)

Host species Conifers, especially pine, Douglas fir, spruce, fir, cedar, juniper.

SymptomsNo outward symptoms appear, because the bugs suck on the seeds of the cones. The bug itself is unmistakable.

Causal agentBug: 9-20 mm large (females larger than males); reddish-brown; in the middle of the body a fine, white zigzag line; hind legs have a leaf-like enlargement. exude by touch a not unple-asant smell, reminiscent of apple or lemon; hibernation in protected places (bark, buildings); spring, they suck on the flowers and last year pins; May / June oviposition of the brown eggs in a single row on needles; larvae/nymphs: first orange later red-brown; Sucking on the needles and the developing seeds of cones; one generation per year.

Possibilities of errorsUnmistakable.

EffectsInjuries caused by suction results in reduced germination. With a strong attack the seed production can complete collapse.

ControlNo measurements needed; for harassment in a residential area the bugs can be collected in the fall and be suspended outside or destroyed.

IndexLymantria dispar22

Lymantria dispar

gypsy moth (Engl.), Schwammspinner (Deut.), bombyx disparate, spongieuse, zig-zag (Franc.), bombice dispari, farfala dispari, limantria dispari (Ital.), Gobar (Slowen.)

Host species Oak; rarely beech, hazel, hornbeam, sweet chestnut and other.

SymptomsBetween May and June sociable eating larvae on the leaves (initially skeletonizing feeding pattern (lonly leaf veins remain), later on all tissues eaten by caterpillars), high populations often result in total tree defoliation; crown dieback; egg layers sponge-like on the stem bark, yellowish-white, palm-sized.

Causal agentButterflies: female white with brown, zigzag stripes and black dot; 50-70 mm wingspan. Ma-les are darker (gray-brown) and smaller (35-50 mm wingspan); Larva: first black; later with brown, dense hair in bunches; max. 40-70 mm long with yellow longitudinal lines or a broad brown stripe, each with 2 blue dots (Knopf warts) in the first five segments, on the other red button warts; highly polyphagous; Can have mass outbreaks; one generation per year; first larva instar overwinters in the egg shell; have a lot of natural enemies; Skin irritation in suscep-tible persons by caterpillar hairs.

Possibilities of errorsFrass by other butterfly caterpillars (e.g. Winter moth; Mottled umber moth; Oak processionary moth; buff-tip moth ; egg mass on the bark are typical sign of recognition for gypsy moth.

EffectsWith several years of defoliation the trees will possible die, otherwise only weakening (reduced growth increment, crown dieback); but predisposed to attacks by secondary damaging agents.

ControlControl for young caterpillars with Bacillus thuringiensis-stage preparations, nor the use of biotechnological molting inhibitors (e.g. Dimilin) is possible. Remove the egg masses from the trunk and branches in winter; Monitoring: e.g. counts of egg masses after leaf fall; male moths can be lured and trapped with pheromone traps.

Index Phaenops cyaneaMelanophila cyanea23

Phaenops cyanea (Melanophila cyanea)

steelblue jewel beetle (Engl.), blauer Kiefernprachtkäfer (Deut.), ? (Franc.), ? (Ital.), Modri Borov Krasnik (Slowen.)

Host species Pine species, rare in larch, spruce, white fir. Symptomsinitially observed no safe infestation characteristics; Resin droplets on the bark; infestation is visible from September (usually with needles still green) because of the increased woodpecker activity on the lower stem; crown shows massive signs of decline (gray-green needles), and the bark of the lower stem sounds when knocking hollow, detachment of the bark; develop-ment 1-2 years; blue stained wood; crescent-shaped exit hole. Causal agentBeetle: about 7,2-11,9mm large; blue to blue-green shining; oval and narrowed in the last third; flight time Juni-August; ovopsition at sunny bark sides; larva: up to 24 mm long, whitish, legless and flattened with oval, dark, wrinkled chitinous plate on the front chest; first segment of the larva is considerably broadened (spoon-like formed) larvae galleries: in the bast zigzag winding tunnels; getting wider with development of the larva; pressed, cloudy drilling dust in the tunnels; hibernation as larva in breeding system; Pupate in the bark; larva lies in U-form in the pupate cradle; maturation- and regeneration feeding on the pine needles; prefers standing, weakened old pine species; light and warm- loving insect; tends to outbreaks; vector for blue stain fungi; early stage of complex of pine decline. Possibilities of errorsLarvae galleries similar to Pissodes-species; longhorn beetle (difference in drilling dust); ribbed pine borer (larva lies straight in the pupate cradle). EffectsUnder favorable weather conditions (heat) and weakened trees beetles are harmful and lethal for the tree; vigorous trees can fend off attacks by intensive fresh resin formation; Impairment of the wood by blue stain fungi. ControlNo curative measures for infested trees are possible. For the protection neighboring trees in-fested trees have to be felled before the emergence of the beetle by the end of May; debarking and burning of the bark; Trap trees.

Index Pityocteines (Ips) curvidens, P.spinidens, P. vorontzove24

Pityocteines (Ips) curvidens,P.spinidens, P. vorontzove

Silver fir bark beetle, fir bark beetle (Engl.), krumzähniger Tannenborkenkäfer, westlicher Tannenborkenkäfer (Deut.), bostryche curvidenté, rongeur du sapin blanc, scolyte curvidenté (Franc.), Bostrico dai denti curvi, Bostrico dell‘abete bianco (Ital.), ? (Slowen.)

Host species Firs, seldom larch, cedar, Douglas fir, pine, spruce.

SymptomsResin flow on the stem and on twigs, shiny resin droplets, brown wood shavings from small bore holes, browning of branches or the whole crown; under the bark star-shaped galleries visible; larvae, pupae and beetles in the gallerie; bark peeling, higher woodpecker activity; dieback.

Causal agentsince the fir bark beetles swarm very early (March), two to three generations per year and sometimes a siblings generation are possible. Stronger attacks on pre-damaged trees (drought stress or Armillaria-infection); under the bark star-shaped galleries; often associated with other scolytid species; by high population density attack of healthy trees; overwinter first in the breeding trees and as young and old beetle in hibernation trees; beetles: characteristically curved sutural teeth on the hind end (distinguish the individual species and sex of the beetle on the basis of different shape of the frons); 2,5 to 3,2 mm(Pityocteines (Ips) curvidens); 2 to 2,8 mm (P.spinidens); 1,6 to2,4mm (P. vorontzove).

Possibilities of errorsOther bark beetle species: watch for the shape of the gallery under the bark surface !

EffectsDeath of the infected branches or the whole tree.

ControlWhen only single branches are infested, they should be cut, burnt or controlled with insecti-cides (for instance stem protecting insecticides) before the appearance of young beetles. If necessary removal and debarking of whole tree in order to prevent attacks on healthy trees. forest management practice would be to mix Abies with broadleaved trees such as Fagus sylvatica, Acer pseudoplatanus; pheromone traps; Removel from snow and storm fallen trees; search for hibernation trees.

IndexPityogenes chalcographus25

Pityogenes chalcographus

six-toothed spruce bark beetle (Engl.), Kupferstecher (Deut.), bostryche chalcographe, petit rongeur de l‘épicéa, petit rongeur du sapin (Franc.), bostrico calcografo (Ital.), Šesterozobi smrekov lubadar (Slowen.)

Host species main host Spruce species; other coniferous tree species Douglas fir; Pine and larch.

SymptomsChange in colour of their needles, which start by yellowing and then become brown later on (young trees – whole crown, older tress – at first only upper crown); small boring holes in the thin bark with shavings and resin flow from the holes; feeding tunnels below the bark: 3-6 arms, star-shaped, central room hidden in the bark.

Causal agentbeetle: 1,6 – 2,9mm; has a black head and thorax, the elytra has a characteristic red-brownish shine; Elytral declivity longitudinally impressed in the middle and armed with three strong lateral spines on each side; male with each teeth on the hind end; female with only 6 reduced teeth, frons has a deep transversal impression above epistomal margin; preferred the upper, thin barked parts of the trunk; flight period April/May and in case of a second generation in July/August (in very hot weather it is also developing a third Generation).

Possibilities of errorsPityophthorus pityographus and P. bidentatus is approximately equal to the six-toothed spru-ce bark beetle, inhabited the same species of trees and gnawing a similar feeding picture. Morphologically, the closest related species are P. trepanatus, P.fossifrons and other „three simple-spined“ Pityogenes spp. with impressions on female the frons.

EffectsCommon spruce bark beetle, especially causing severe damage in young stands (death of trees); in old trees often together with the wood borer; also recently planted spruces may be attacked, if there are depositions of branch material in the vicinity.

ControlGeneral measures against bark beetles: freshly attacked spruces should be felled and removed from the forest (infested material should be burnt or chipped); in spring before hatching of the beetles trapping-trees including branches should be exposed in the forest; pheromone traps; debarking of logs to prevent P. chalcographus from being introduced into isolated new areas. Thicker parts of trunks can be treated chemically.

IndexPityophthorus pityographus26

Pityophthorus pityographus

fir bark beetle (Engl.), gefurchter Fichtenborkenkäfer (Deut.), ? (Franc.), ? (Ital.), Jelov vejni lubadar (Slowen.)

Host species mainly Douglas fir and Spruce; other Coniferous species Pine; Larch; Fir.

SymptomsSmall boreholes in the trunk or branches; dying of twigs and branches of old trees, but also of younger plants, which have been physiologically weakened; underneath the bark star-shaped galleries, mating chamber deeply inserted in the springwood, larval tunnels wide.

Causal agentBeetle: very short 1,1 bis 1,5 mm; flies late from April/Mai; two generations pro year (one generation at high altitudes), young beetle overwinters in the galleries. Especially in afforesta-tions attacking healthy trees after mass propagation.

Possibilities of errorsby contrast to those of the Six-toothed Spruce bark beetle (Pityogenes chalcographus) mating chamber deeply inserted in the springwood for for fir bark beetle (Pityophthorus pityographus) and mother tunnels wider for Six-toothed Spruce bark beetle. Pityogenes conjunctus silimar damage of feedeing but the mother tunnels are a litle wider.

EffectsHeavy infestations and association with other bark beetles it can come to the death of the trees, but often only damage of individual branches or crown-parts.

ControlHygienic measures: above all in afforestations quick removal of infested plants; infested mat-rerail can be chopped or burned; preventive treatment of neighboring trees with a trunk pro-tection (insecticide) before the flight season, use of pheromones.

IndexTetropium gracilicorne27

Tetropium gracilicorne

Fine-antenna spruce borer (Engl.), ? (Deut.), ? (Franc.), ? (Ital.), ? (Slowen.)

Host species Khingan fir, Dahurian larch, Siberian larch, Yeddo spruce, fruit pine, Siberian stone pine, Scots pine.

Symptomsinternal feeding; galleries in the drying-out bast which they usually fill up with small-grained boring dust; width of the gallery is 10 m, longitudinal, straight or curved and sometimes they cross light traces on the sapwood; cradles in the bark along the stem; large entrance and emer-gence holes in trunks, peeling bark, borings at the base of infested trees, tunnels made by large larvae. The needles of attacked trees often show yellowing and wilting. Causal agentThe adult is 9-16 mm long; body is black, antennae and legs are red-brown (orange). The elyta are normally light-brown, elongate, parallel and rounded at the apex. The sides of the pronotum are rounded. Its back is narrower than its front. It is covered with dense spots and small hairs; The antennae are thin and go behind the base of the pronotum. Larva: 16-19 mm long, the head is 2.8-3 mm wide; whole body is hairy; head is round and narrowed at the front with a big whitish spot; The clypeus narrows towards the apex. It is white on the base and reddish (yellowish-red) on the apex; there are two small spikes at the rear. Pupa: The body is 11-17 mm long, the abdomen is 3-5 mm wide; The antennae are clasped to the body; The pronotum is widened in the middle, narrowed to the front and to the back, covered by spar-se bristles; The top of the abdomen has a pair of long urogomphal outgrowths. Mainly infest recently dead or highly stressed trees but also healthy trees.


EffectsRepetitio of damage of the same trees during several consecutive years causing their death. infestation results in significant loss of vigour and of wood marketability.

ControlControl measures include forestry and sanitary measures (improving of the resistance of forests, cutting and elimination of all infested trees; cutting of „trapping trees“ followed by their treat-ment), as well as treatments with chemical and biological preparations.

IndexThaumetopoea pityocampa28

Thaumetopoea pityocampa

pine processionary moth (Engl.), Pinienprozessionsspinner (Deut.), processionnaire du pin (Franc.), processionaria dei pini (Ital.), ? (Slowen.)

Host species All species of Pinus (Scots pine, black pine) and Cedrus native in the Mediterranean (seldom common larch, Douglas-fir).

Symptomsconspicuous silken nests (up to 0,5m in size, containing hundreds of caterpillars); egg masses laid on the low branches of trees; needles of twigs close to the silken nest; these partially eaten twigs remain on the tree with their brown and yellowing needles (1-2 instar). During the winter, defoliation increases and the white nests stand out plainly.

Causal agentThe larvae: five instars (differences in head capsule size).full-grown caterpillar is about 40 mm in length. first-instar caterpillar dull apple-green later densely covered with hairs and dark, light on the underside. Adult: white-grey; a hairy thorax; on the head a characteristic comb-like edge with 4 spikes; male with double combed antennae; hindwings are white, grey-fringed, with a characteristic dark spot in the anal region. egg masses from 4 to 5 cm; covered with the scales of the female anal tuft, which mimics the pine shoots. pupate in the soil. At-tention: touching the caterpillars may result in heavy allergic reactions! Common pest in the Mediterranean area; it appears occasionally in Central Europe, does not, however, cause much damage there, since the temperature sums are usually not sufficient for the development. The caterpillars hibernate in the nests (shelter from the cold); in spring, they migrate from the trees in form of a procession in order to pupate in the soil. After a dormancy, which may last from a few months up to 4 years, the moths hatch. In summer, copulation and deposition of eggs take place at the base of pine needles. About one month later, the caterpillars hatch, skin twice and begin with the building of a winter nest.

Possibilities of errorsHardly any, when winter nests are present.

EffectsHeavy losses of needles up to total defoliation; a single total defoliation is hardly damaging, significant losses occur in volume growth.

ControlIn case of massive attacks use Bacillus thuringiensis – components before the winter nests are built, or spray biotechnical skinning inhibitors or insecticides; collect the nests (protective clothing). Chemical control treatments are mainly applied by ULV aerial spraying with rotary atomizers, with petroleum oil or vegetable oils as solvents.

IndexThaumetopoea processionea29

Thaumetopoea processionea

oak processionary moth (Engl.), Eichenprozessionsspinner (Deut.), processionnaire du chene (Franc.), Processionaria della quercia (Ital.), ? (Slowen.)

Host species Oaks, mainly turkey oak (Quercus cerris,); seldom on birches, hornbeams, chestnuts, Corylus, beeches.

SymptomsLarvae feeding on leaves; webs on young leaves; on older leaves only the veins remain. Silk nests on the stem and in crotches; processions of hairy grey-yellow caterpillars on the trunk. Causal agentAdults grey with wingspan 25-30mm (can fly a long distance); egg deposition usually on young twigs of single standing older oaks forming regular plaques of about 100 to 200 eggs. caterpillar: densely covered with hairs with red-brown reflecting spots and growth to 50 mm; gathering places of young, bright-colored beads are loosely spun leaves or branches; older caterpillars make silk nests; almost only feeding on leaves of oaks. Attention: hairs of the caterpillars are poisonous for humans and may cause allergic reactions or inflammations. Mass propagation from time to time

Possibilities of errorsOther insects feeding on leaves (e.g. cockchafers) or caterpillars, e.g. of Gypsy Moth.

EffectsCrown thinning or single total defoliation, usually without dangerous effects, repeated de-foliation may lead to the death of the tree or secondary damages.

ControlBlocking of the affected areas, spraying with insectides or Mechanical removal because of health and hygiene reasons; forecast for the appearance of caterpillars of the oak processio-nary moth in the following year is based on the egg masses found on such in the treetops. Preventive measures: No planting of oaks species near places with a lot people.

IndexTomicus destruens30

Tomicus destruens (Tomicus piniperda)

Pine shoot beetle (Engl.), ? (Deut.), ? (Franc.), ? (Ital.), ? (Slowen.)

Host species Pine species (Pinus halepensis, Pinus pinea, Pinus pinaster, Pinus brutia, Pinus canariensis, Pinus nigra, Pinus radiate).

SymptomsIn early summer, resin cones appear on the shoots of affected pines; by August, the infected shoots are a reddish color; fallen and tunnelled shoots on the ground; dieback; abnormal leaf fall; larval galleries; boring.

Causal agentthe adult beetles are dark-brown head, thorax and elytra; have red-yellow antennal clubs with three rows of hairs; adults hibernate in the shoots or under the bark from fall until spring when they begin to actively colonize the shoots (maturing feeding); able to colonize healthy trees at high population densities, but prefers already weakened trees; The larva is a typical scolytid larva: a legless, whitish grub with a curved body and a brown head capsule; larval galleries are horizontal; 1-2 generations per year have been observed; The pupa is white and resembles the adult insect in size and general form widespread in the pine forests of the entire Mediterranean area; associated with blue-stain fungi.

Possibilities of errorsPhysically very similar to Tomicus piniperda and some still question the claim that they are actually two distinct species. It has been claimed that the adult beetles of T. destruens can be distinguished by their red-yellow antennal clubs with three rows of hairs.

EffectsStem attacks by weakened trees cause the death of the trees within a few months; growth losses may be caused by extensive shoot-feeding; deterioration of timber quality may occur due to beetle-vectored blue-staining of saw logs and pulpwood.

ControlPreventative measures: removal of trees which are stressed due to other factors and therefore vulnerable to infection; snow-breaks and wind-falls should be cleared up of suitable host ma-terial; rapid transportation (i.e. before beetle flight in spring) of saw logs and pulpwood from the forest to the industry, where it is barked or submerged in water immediately; removal of attacked trees.

Index Tomicus spp. (Tomicus piniperda & Tomicus minor)31

Tomicus spp.(Tomicus piniperda & Tomicus minor)

pine shoot beetle (Engl.), Waldgärtner (Deut.), hylésine du pin; blastophage (Franc.), mielofilo (Ital.), borov strženar (Slowen.)

Host species Pine species (seldom on spruce and larch).

SymptomsShoots turn brown and are shed later on; they are mined as a cause of maturation feeding of the beetles; typical egg galleries under the bark of pine logs or trees; dieback; boring (entry holes; drillings, exuding resin droplets on the bark); fallen and tunnelled shoots on the ground.

Causal agentCommen pine shoot beetle (Tomicus piniperda): imago 3,5-5mm; no teeth, but characteristic furrow on the tail. Gallery: straight vertical tunnel with one arm, up to 15cm long. Lesser pine shoot beetle (Tomicus minor): imago 3,5-4,5mm; usually slightly lighter (more reddish) than Tomicus piniperda and without furrow on the tail. Egg gallery two-armed, wing-formed, transverse tunnels in bark and sapwood. The larva is for both a typical scolytid larva: a legless, whitish grub with a curved body and a brown head capsule; associated with blue-stain fungi; Especially on weakened trees (dying, standing pines) and stored not yet dried out trunks and; by high population density goes on healthy trees; 1genaration pro year plus sister hood; During regeneration and maturation feeding, the beetles undermine healthy shoots.

Possibilities of errorsYoung beetles feeding on the shoots may be mistaken for dieback caused by fungi or damages by Squirrels (if shoots fall down); watch for mined shoots! Commen pine shoot beetle (Tomicus piniperda) can be mistaken for Tomicus destruens.

EffectsAbnormal branching. Galleries one the stem in the phloem cause death of the tree, as with other bark beetles; deterioration of timber quality may occur due to beetle-vectored blue-staining of saw logs and pulpwood; growth losses may be caused by extensive shoot-feeding.

ControlImmediate removal of attacked trees; Preventative measures: removal of trees which are stressed due to other factors and therefore vulnerable to infection; snow-breaks and wind-falls should be cleared up of suitable host material; rapid transportation (i.e. before beetle flight in spring) of saw logs and pulpwood from the forest to the industry, where it is barked or submerged in water immediately.

IndexTortrix viridana32

Tortrix viridana

european oak leaf roller (Engl.), Eichenwickler (Deut.), chape verte, tordeuse verte du chêne (Franc.), tortrice delle querce, tortrice verde, tortrice verde delle querce, verdaiola (Ital.), zeleni hrastov zavijač (Slowen.)

host species main food plants palearctic oaks (quercus), both deciduous and evergreen. other deciduous trees (hornbeam, chestnut, hazelnut, maple, and poplar), juniperus, raspberry.

Symptomsamaged assimilative organs, including complete defoliation (starting von the top); leaves: necrotic areas, yellowed or dead, rolled-up or folded with developing larvae within, damaged near the mid-vein and on the extended leaves, and the larvae also eat the outer margins.

Causal agentAdult: Small, wingspan is approximately 18 to 23 mm. The forewings are rectangular, and the colour can vary from pale-green (mostly in the males) to uniform straw-yellow (mostly in the females). The hindwings and abdomen are pale-grey, the head is yellowish or greenish, and the corpus is greenish. Larva: eight pairs of legs; 12 to 20 mm long, colour from grey and grey-yellow to yellow; dark head; brown or grey scutellum; two dark stains on the abdomen; the whole corpus is covered by black to brown tubercles with relatively long hairs. developing larvae feed in rolled-up or folded leaves; infested leaves are joined together by the silk the larvae spin; Pupa: Initially green or dark-brown, then black, with a chestnut abdomen and 8 to 10 mm long.

Possibilities of errorsThe adult of T. viridana is similar to Earias chlorana [Earias clorana]; the forewings of E. clorana are a different shape to those of T.. The image of the damage in tree crowns (defoliation) is often similar to that caused by geometrid moths, such as Operophtera brumata, Erannis defoli-aria, Lymantria dispar or adults of Melolontha spp..

EffectsResult of defoliation is a change in tree condition and vitality; reduced tree growth; Defoliation also contributes to an enhancement of tree susceptibility to frost damage and European oak leaf roller is assoiated with other insects (xylophagous).

Controlintervention is usually not necessary because the oak can sprout again after infestation; bio-logical control method is the application of bioinsecticides based on Bacillus thuringiensis; insecticide traps; pheromone traps.

IndexViscum album ssp. album33

Viscum album ssp. album

mistletoe (Engl.), Laubholzmistel (Deut.), Vischio delle latifo glie (Franc.), Gui des feuillus (Ital.), Bela omela (Slowen.)

Host species Linden, willow, poplar, maple, locust, birch, poplar, and other tree and shrub species.

SymptomsDense green shrubby structures sitting usually on the stem in upper crown parts or on branches

Causal agentMistletoe (Viscum album): semi-parasite/Xylem-parasit, the mistletoe grwoth into the host plant and develops a connection to the water and assimilate system; with evergreen longish leaves on forked twigs, white berries; distribution of seeds by birds; one seed can contain up to four nuclei; germinate as a light-and heat-loving plants particularly well on the young outer branches in the upper crown; growth is slow; in the fifth year the plant develops inconspicuous yellow-green flowers; better chance of survival in already weakened trees.

Possibilities of errorsOutward form does not differ from Viscum album ssp. album, V. album ssp. Abietis and V. album ssp. Austriacum; Viscum album ssp. album has other berries slime, difference in host plants. Loranthus europaeus on oaks (no leaves in winter), witches’ brooms.

EffectsRobs the tree of water and nutrients, leads to weakening, reduced growth, in severe cases to death of trees; devaluation of the wood in the stem through holes caused by haustorium.

ControlRemoval of mistletoes in time (as suckers are formed, cutting deeply into the healthy tissue is necessary), wrapping of the attacked parts with black plastic (stops assimilation of the mistletoes).

IndexViscum album ssp. abieti34

Viscum album ssp. abieti

mistletoe (Engl.), Tannenmistel (Deut.), Gui du sapin (Franc.), Vischio dell’abete (Ital.), Bela omela (Slowen.)

Host species Silver fir.

SymptomsDense green shrubby structures sitting usually on the stem in upper crown parts or on branches.

Causal agentMistletoe (Viscum album): semi-parasite/Xylem-parasit, the mistletoe growth into the host plant and developes a connection to the water and assimilate system; with evergreen longish leaves on forked twigs, white berries; distribution of seeds by birds; one seed can contain up to four nuclei; germinate as a light-and heat-loving plants particularly well on the young outer branches in the upper crown; growth is slow; in the fifth year the plant develops inconspicuous yellow-green flowers; better chance of survival in already weakened trees.




IndexViscum album ssp. austriacum35

Viscum album ssp. austriacum

mistletoe (Engl.), Föhrenmistel (Deut.), gui blanc (Franc.), Gui du pin (Ital.), Bela omela (Slowen.)

Host species Pine species (Pinus sylvestris, P. nigra, P. mugo ssp uncinata), seldom on spruce.

SymptomsDense green shrubby structures sitting usually on the stem in upper crown parts or on branches.

Causal agentMistletoe (Viscum album): semi-parasite/Xylem-parasit, the mistletoe grwoth into the host plant and develops a connection to the water and assimilate system; with evergreen longish leaves on forked twigs, white berries; distribution of seeds by birds; one seed can contain up to four nuclei; germinate as a light-and heat-loving plants particularly well on the young outer branches in the upper crown; growth is slow; in the fifth year the plant develops inconspicuous yellow-green flowers; better chance of survival in already weakened trees.




IndexArmillaria spp.36

Armillaria spp.

Honey fungus (Engl.), Hallimasch (Deut.), Armillaire, agent de pourriture des racines (Franc.), ? (Ital.), Bela trohnoba korenin (Slowen.)

Host speciesNearly all tree species.

SymptomsWhite rot, resin or sap flow of the lower stem region, often also from the basis of branches, cracks in the stem, white mycelial fans underneath the stem bark, black strands of mycelium a few millimeters thick, yellowish discoloration of the needles or leaves, dieback of the crown.

Causal agentArmillaria mellea and other species, fruiting bodies honey-yellow to brownish, stalked, with gills, sized 5-15 cm in diameter. Commonly attacking trees weakened by various abiotic stresses.

Possibilities of errorsPholiota squarrosa and other root rot fungi.

EffectsWhite rot, root rot, cambial damage, death of the trees.

ControlCare for the appropriate site conditions, avoid damage to roots. Foster mixed stands, as effects are more severe in monoculture. Remove old stumps carefully, change soil before replanting, if possible.

IndexChalara fraxinea37

Chalara fraxineaHymenoscyphus pseudoalbidus (asexual stage)

Ash dieback (Engl.), Eschentriebsterben (Deut.), Flétrissement du frêne (Franc.), ? (Ital.), Jesenov ožig (Slowen.)

Host speciesFraxinus angustifolia, Fraxinus excelsior.

SymptomsWilt, premature leave fall, necrosis on shoots and leaf stalks, cancer, wood discoloration.

Causal agentChalara fraxinea, asexual spores, produced in < 1 cm large white fruiting bodies, which develop on leaf stalks and in ground litter of last year‘s fallen leafs. Spores are wind distributed.

Possibilities of errorsCancer caused by the fungus Nectria galligena, cancer caused by the bacterium Pseudomonas syringae subsp. savastanoi pv. fraxini, wilting or leaf and branch dieback caused by late frost events, crown degeneration due to abiotic reasons (e.g. drought).

EffectsDieback of branches, decrease in crown density, shrub like foliage, substitute shoots and water sprouts, seedling die in 2-3 years, adult trees decline more slowly.

ControlDirect control is not possible; measures like fungicide application or removal of infectious mate-rial are inadequate. Planting ash species is not advised, natural rejuvenation preferred. In mixed stands heavily infested ashes should be removed and accompanying species fostered. Thinning of lightly infested ash stand should be continued, and marking carried out during summer. Crown density of valuable trees should be observed during summer (July), if decreased by > 80% the trees should be cut down in the following winter. Timber needs to be removed from the forest during winter to minimize loss of timber quality due to rot fungi and to hinder the reproduction of Leperisinus spp. Road and occupational safety issues have to be considered in the case of crown dieback.

IndexChrysomyxa abietis38

Chrysomyxa abietis

Chrysomyxa – spruce needle rust (Engl.), Fichtennadelrost (Deut.), Rouille annulaire des aiguilles de l‘épicéa (Franc.), ? (Ital.), Smrekova rja (Slowen.)

Host species Spruces, several species.

SymptomsCurrent shoots needles show several yellow bands. During the summer dark, orange-red bulging spore-bearing structures appear in the bands, releasing no spore dust when touched.

Causal agentThis rust species, capable of attacking spruces everywhere, does not depend on two different host plants, contrary to the Alpine Needle Rust of Spruce (Chrysomyxa rhododendri) which requires Rhododendron species in the vicinity of spruces. Chrysomyxa abietis prefers low altitudes and humid stands. The disease spreads in rainy springs.

Possibilities of errorsGreen spruce aphid, other Chrysomyxa species, nutrient insufficiency (manganese, iron).

EffectsNeedle discoloration, loss of needles, reduction of increment. Young plants may die after several heavy infestations.

ControlThin dense forests to lower humidity; In Christmas tree cultures systemic fungicides before bud burst, non systemic fungicides in spring (several applications).

IndexCryphonectria parasitica39

Cryphonectria parasitica

Chestnut Blight (Engl.), Kastanienrindenkrebs (Deut.), Chancre de l‘écorce du châtaignier (Franc.), ? (Ital.), Kostanjev rak (Slowen.)

Host species sweet chestnut, rarely oaks.

SymptomsDying twigs, yellowing of leaves and dieback of trees of all ages. Bark surface showing reddish-brown boat-shaped necroses which spread on the stem and branches up to several meters, with orange or red spore pustules. Below: intense production of epicormic shoots. Wilted leaves remain on the dead tree over the winter. Stems show longitudinal cracks and cankers.

Causal agentCryphonectria parasitica is the most wide-spread and fatal disease of edible chestnuts. It appears almost everywhere in Europe, only strongly isolated stands are not yet infected. The disease spreads via spores infecting trees by wind, rain and insects.

Possibilities of errorsUsually none: at the most Cryptodiaporthe - canker of Sweet Chestnut.

EffectsAlmost always lethal.

ControlPruning or coppicing diseased trees, wound sealing with wound paint containing fungicides; All infectious material should be carefully removed and burned. Biotechnical application of strains of the same species with reduced aggressiveness (hypovirulent strains). Trees with less aggressive form of the disease should remain in the stand, to allow substitution of the aggressive form.

IndexSphaeropsis sapinea40

Sphaeropsis sapinea (syn. Diplodia pinea)

Sphaeropsis - Blight of Conifers (Engl.), Diplodia Kieferntriebsterben (Deut.), Dépérissement des pousses du pins dû à Sphaeropsis (Franc.), ? (Ital.), ? (Slowen.)

Host species Various pine species , more rarely other conifers.

SymptomsDieback of shoots, twigs and branches. Yellow to red-brown discoloration of needles. Later on bleaching of the needles, which remain attached to the dry twigs for a long time. On the bark black, roundish fruiting bodies up to 1 to 2 mm in size (Sphaeropsis sapinea) or disk-like fruiting bodies up to 2 to 3 mm , showing a yellow or orange surface when wet (Cenangium ferruginosum).

Causal agentSphaeropsis sapinea is an important dieback fungus of Austrian black pine in continental and mediterranean climates, especially when exceptionally high precipitation during spring is fol-lowed by a dry and hot summer. Sphaeropsis sapinea infects needles at the time of flushing and branches upon hail damaged. In the case of Cenangium ferruginosum a dependence on this special climatic condition is not so clear, but drought stress is supposed to be the main predisposing factor.

Possibilities of errorsSalt injury: parts of the crown facing the road with yellowish to brownish discoloration. Attacks of bark beetles on the stem: pale green, later on yellow-brown discoloration of the whole crown. Other fungal diseases, herbicide injuries, frost, drought.

EffectsPaving the way for secondary pests. Pines may die within a few months.

ControlHygienic measures, removal of dead crown material; balanced water supply.

IndexEutypella parasitica41

Eutypella parasitica

Eutypella canker of maple (Engl.), ? (Deut.), ? (Franc.), ? (Ital.), Javorov rak (Slowen.)

Host species All maple species.

SymptomsThe canker is of elliptical shape, with a flat or sunken centre, often retaining the dead bark and surrounded by thick callus. White to beige mycelium can be observed under the bark at the canker margin, the fungus produces spores in tiny, black fruiting bodies that develop in the centers of cankers.

Causal agentSpore of Eutypella parasitica are released from the fruiting body, infect wounds or dead branch on trunks and with time a canker is developed.

Possibilities of errorsNectria maple cancer, Kretzschmaria deusta, Botryosphaeria dothidea.

EffectsEutypella parasitica girdls the trunk and causes tree mortality especially in young trees, older trees may continue grow for > 10 more years upon infection. Infected maple commonly amount to 3-5 % in a stand, but up to 50 % are possible.

ControlPrune infected branches & cut off infected part of stem, at least 40 cm above and below the canker, remove infected material. Report any finding to the phytosanitary service. Natural spread is slow, generation time is long (several years), which means there is a good chance for eradication. Monitor surrounding trees for symptoms, fell and remove the effected trees.

IndexGibberella circinata42

Gibberella circinata

Pitch canker (Engl.), ? (Deut.), ? (Franc.), ? (Ital.), Borov smolasti rak (Slowen.)

Host species Pinus radiata, Pinus halepensis, Pinus pinea, Pinus nigra, Pinus sylvestris and Pseudotsuga menziesii.

SymptomsNo symptons on seeds can be seen (labor test is needed). Infected seedlings collapse. Resino-sis shows on stem. Necrosis appear on bark, stem and on the root system above the ground. Dying effects of the shouts are showing. Cancer symptoms are growing on stem. Wilt symptoms (rot the roots of the seedlings). Discoloration of the needles.

Causal agentIn Europea the risk area for Gibberella circinata lies in the Mediterranean. The fungal is natural spread through wind and insekts. Widespread through the human (seeds etc.). The infections happens by the use of wounds on the bark.

Possibilities of errorsResinosis is often a symptom of Pucciniales. Shoot dying can be a symptom of Sphaeropsis sapinea. Excrescenceon on stem can be caused by Crumenulpsis sororia. Pseudotsuga menziesii shows dying effects after Frost or/and infections from Potebinmyces coniferarum or Phytophtora ramorum.

EffectsInfections on root system and the lower level of the bole are lethal. Infection on the treetop is lethal too but with e slower effect.

ControlEuopean agency 18.06.2007 (2007/433/EG): Obligation of yearly surveys for an early detection of an appearance. In suspicious cases it is to report to the official plant protection service and to send a probe of the material in. Pseudotsuga menziesii`s seeds from North Ame-rica are to be phytosanitary inspected and for a labortest a probe has to be send in.

IndexHerpotrichia juniperi43

Herpotrichia juniperi

Brown felt blight (Engl.), schwarzer Schneeschimmel (Deut.), ? (Franc.), ? (Ital.), Pajčevinasta črnoba iglavcev (Slowen.)

Host species Picea species, Pinus cembra, Pinus mugo, Abies alba, Juniperus communis L..

SymptomsFungal threads form a brown-black compact felt who covers single shouts to small trees. Black, round fruiting bodies grow on infected, dead needle. Causal agentHerpotrichia juniper appears in 900m – 2000m N.N. The disease developing starts with temperature at -5°C and only under the snow. Therefore most damage is caused in areas with plenty and long-lasting snow like the foothills of the Alps. The fungal infects mostly young and weak trees or the lower level of old tree branches.

Possibilities of errorsHerpotrichia juniper can be differed from Herpotrichia coulteri only when the spores are observed mocroskopic.

EffectsDying of the infected branches. When the whole tree (seedling) is infected, Herpotrichia juniper is lethal.

ControlInfected plant or parts should be cut and burned in the whole vegetation period. High ground vegetation should be cleared to minimize the infection risk. Control with fungicide would have to be done several times in the year and over a long time.

IndexHeterobasidion annosum44

Heterobasidion annosum (Heterobasidion spp.)

Red Rot (Engl.), Kiefern-Wurzelschwamm, Ackersterbe (Deut.), coeur rouge de l‘epicea (Franc.), ? (Ital.), ? (Slowen.)

Host species mainly affects species of Pinus, but it also affects a wide range of other conifers in Europe.

Symptomsroot decay in all hosts, discoloration of bark. Profuse resin excretion on the roots and at the base of the stem. External symptoms only appear at an advanced stage of decay and include reduced growth, defoliation of the crown, and resin exudations on the stem.Young trees: all needles turning yellow green, then red, finally brown. On the stem base below the bark white, thin fan-shaped mycelium, no strands. Old trees: stem base typically bottle-shaped, mostly sunken on one side, in cross section reddish rot, heart-and springwood. Wind-thrown trees with decayed roots or open gaps in the stand often indicate the presence of Heterobasidion root rot in the forest. In the field, Heterobasidion root rot can only be clearly identified with assurance by the presence of basidiocarps (flat, thin, but very tough, 5-40 cm in size, tubes whitish, very fine pores, outside black to brown and bumpy).

Causal agentHeterobasidion annosum is a wide spread fungual from North Asia, North America, almost everywhere in Euopean, Australia and New Zeland.

Possibilities of errorsHeterobasidion insulare can look very similar to H. annosum spp.. The disease can be mistaken for damage by honey fungus or other rot fungi.

EffectsTthe heart wood intensive rots. Decrease of the stability of the tree. Conifers rich in resin (pines): quick decline of roots, infection mostly deadly, no primary rot; conifers poor in resin (spruces): quick decline only with young plants, otherwise only stem rot for a long time.

ControlControl by performing cuttings during the seasons (cold winter or hot summer) when the risk of spore infection is low or absent. Cut surface of fresh stumps can be treated with a protectant to prevent infection. Extraction of infected stumps before regeneration essentially reduces the risk of infection in the next generation. Favouring the regeneration of resistant tree species close to decayed stumps.

IndexMeria laricis45

Meria laricis

Larch needle cast (Engl.), Lärchennadelschütte (Deut.), Méria du mélèze (Franc.), ? (Ital.), ? (Slowen.)

Host species Larix decidua, Larix kaempferi.

SymptomsNeedels are getting yellow-brown and falling begins early starting from the lower level to the crown. Causal agentThe fungual overwinter in the fallen needles on the ground. A rainy spring advances the nwey infection in the next year. The infection goes only on the needles.

Possibilities of errorsSimilar symptoms are caused by the fungual Mycosphaerella laricina and the insects Coleophora laricell, Taeniothrips laricivorus, Sacchiphantes viridis und Adelges laricis.

EffectsFor young trees can a infection be lethal. Older trees can shoot normally in the following year. But the loss of needles weakens the defense for secondary agent. It is not yet known, if Meria-needle cast is able to stress trees to become susceptible to secondary agent (BWF).

ControlForestry: Larix not in areas with high air moisture. Larix should be grown in mixture (beech). In tree nursery yearly change of the seeds bed.

IndexMycosphaerella dearnessii46

Mycosphaerella dearnessii

Brown spot needle blight (Engl.), Lecanosticta – Kiefernnadelbräune (Deut.), tache brune des aiguilles du pin (Franc.), ? (Ital.), Rjavenje borovih iglic (Slowen.)

Host species Various Pinus species

SymptomsFirst symptom is that the needle becomes small yellow, yellow-brown spots who are getting bigger with time. Younger needles completely or partly yellow discoloured (typically the distal half of the needle only), frequently shortened, with blackish brown bands, from which greenish masses of spores are extruded (hand lens), never reddish shades in the bands. The necrotic area of the needle dies and it comes to abnormal leaf fall and fungal growth.

Causal agentIn Europe up to now only asexual fruiting structures have been observed. The spores are for-med during the summer months and they infect new needles under moist weather conditions. The spreading of the thermophilic species is comparatively slow since the temperature optima for the infection (30°C in daytime and 21°C in the night) are hardly reached in Central Europe.

Possibilities of errorsLophodermella needle cast (Lophodermella sulcigena), also only the distal half of the needle yellow. Mychosphaerella pini shows the same symptoms but with red coloring around the ban-ding. First symptoms oft mistake for insects bites.

EffectsLoss of increment; crown thinning, slight shoot and twig dieback, disposition to other dama-ging factors; a serious danger only to young plants. Tree will die after a long time with strong defoliation (BWF).

ControlQuarantine-OrganismIn case of suspicion the pest control authorities must be informed! Remove and burn all in-fected plants as soon as possible! By seeding enough space between the seedlings should be kept. Brown spot needle blight is easily suppressed by applications of bordeaux mixture, chlorothalonil, benomyl, copper hydroxide and captafol in nurseries, seed orchards, and plan-tations of longleaf pine and scots pine. Seedlings should be sprayed at 10- to 30-day intervals depending on the amount of rainfall, from the beginning of spring through late summer. It is also recommended to make a final spray just prior to planting. This will ensure protection during establishment of seedlings in the field.

IndexMycosphaerella pini47

Mycosphaerella pini

Red band needle blight, Dothistroma needle blight (Engl.), Dothistroma - Kiefernschütte (Deut.), ? (Franc.), ? (Ital.), Rdeč pegavost (obrobljenost) borovih iglic (Slowen.)

Host species Different species of pines, especially common on Austrian pines (Pinus nigra).

SymptomsLiving needles of different age with small yellow, yellow-brown spots who are getting bigger with time are the first symptom. The needles become yellowed with one to several brown bands up to one mm broad, later with black shining dots in the bands; frequently, above all in Austrian pines, orange to salmon red shades in the bands. necrotic areas, abnormal colours, abnormal leaf fall, fungal growth. Causal agentThe needle fungus overwinters on infected needles, which remain hanging on the tree or fall to the ground. In the spring from about March / April, the pine needles are infected by ascospores or conidia, which have arisen during the winter and early spring. This disease can be observed mainly in warmer regions with dry summers at low altitudes. Infection however takes place under moist conditions (fog, rain). The spore bearing structures of the asexual stage (Dothistroma) show up in the bands after a few months.

Possibilities of errorsThe disease can be mistaken for Brown spot-disease (Lecanosticta-needle cast) and the first symptom for damage by needle sucking insects.

EffectsIncrement losses; crown thinning, slight shoot dieback; disposition to other damaging factors. Endangering the lives of young plants only.

ControlApplication of fungicides only in nurseries with young plants or gardens; avoidance of dense and moist stands and light deficiency. Avoiding of too close planting. Forest nursery not in adjacency of old Pinus populations.The type of tree plantedshould be carfully selected. Some pine species are much more susceptible than others and some show resistance to infection upon maturity.

IndexNeonectria coccinea48

Neonectria coccinea

beech bark canker (Engl.), Buchenrindennekrose (Deut.), ? (Franc.), Nécrose de l‘écorce du hêtre, maladie des suintements du hêtre (Ital.), ? (Slowen.)

Host species Deciduous trees; Nectria coccinea mainly on beech and maple.

SymptomsPatches of dying bark on the stem. Areas become dry, partly sunken, the outer bark breaking off. Sometimes sap flow close to the dying parts. Commonly high numbers of red, pinhead sized fruiting bodies. Early yellow coloring and falling of the leaves, shoot’s dying. Red, pinhead big and round fruiting bodies growth on the borde to the wound or in dead bark parts. Causal agentThe fungual causes bark necrosis, resulting in callus reaction of varying proportions around the borders of the necrosis. Nectria coccinea on beech is frequently the consequence of infestation by the wooly aphid (Cryptococcus fagisuga) or Phytophtera.

Possibilities of errorsOther bark invading pathogenic microfungi, above all after injuries. Damage by bark invading or Phytophtera. Spruce degeneration, dry, sunburn.

EffectsSap in the tree is perturbed. Perennial heavy attacks may cause the decline of the tree. High numbers and wide infected area of bark cankers reduce the vitality (predisposition for secondary pathogens) and can lead to death of the tree.

ControlAvoid all kinds of injuries, control of wooly aphids, assessment of the residual wall thickness, disinfection of pruning tools. Disease is not contagious. Trees with strong resin extraction should be cut early to avoid further wood devaluation.

IndexOphiostoma ulmi, O. novo-ulmi49

Ophiostoma ulmi, O. novo-ulmi

Dutch elm disease (Engl.), Holländische Ulmenkrankheit, Ulmensterben (Deut.), Graphiose de l‘orme, ou maladie hollandaise de l‘orme (Franc.), ? (Ital.), Odmiranje brestov holandska brestova bolezen (Slowen.)

Host species Elm species.

SymptomsFrom the middle of June wilting and curling of green leaves, primarily affecting singular ou-ter branches; discoloration light-green to shining yellow, later on brown; feeding damages in crotches of young shoots; cross section showing dark, dotty discoloration in the sapwood, brownish-black longitudinal stripes in the wood below the bark and plugged vessels. In the beginning death of single shoots and twigs, later on of branches and parts of the crown; frequent attacks of bark beetles on the stem and thick branches (orc-holes, bark-shedding and feeding patterns).

Causal agentThe Ascomycete Ophiostoma novo-ulmi - secretion of wilt toxins and thyllosis (plugged vessels) leading to wilting symptoms and finally to death of plant parts distal to the infection place; Vector Transmission: bark beetles (Elm bark beetles) carry the spores of the fungus to healthy trees. There it comes to a new infection of the tree during the maturation feeding on shoots and crotches. A new infection rarely accurses through root adhesion.

Possibilities of errorsNone, possibly drought damage.

EffectsEndangering the life of the elm in Europa; almost led to its entire disappearance. The fungus disrupts the metabolic- and water transport (typical vascular wilt disease). The disease is lethal.

ControlCurative measures only useful for worth preserving individual tress. Hygiene measures to be used are clear-cutting of infected branches and stem injections with systemic fungicides (little success rate). Cutting and disposal of infected trees and weakened trees (nesting tree for elm bark beetle).WSL.

IndexPhacidium infestans50

Phacidium infestans

White snow blight (Engl.), Schneeschütte, weißer Schneepilz (Deut.), pourriture des neiges des conifères (Franc.), ? (Ital.), Borova snežna plesen (Slowen.)

Host species Swiss Pine (Pinus cembra), Pinus sylvestris.

SymptomsUnder the snow are the needle swollen and olive-gray. After the melting of the snow the needles dry out quickly and turn brown. The needles fade during the summer und are more brittle. Death needles are hanging in clusters from the branches. In early summer dark gray to black fruiting bodies can be found under the epidermis, who becomes more visible with progressing fading (magnifying glass). Usually you can find dying of the bark und buds of infected branches.

Causal agentThe infected death needle fall easely and can be spread by wind, animals and the human.


EffectsDying of infected needles, branches, bark and bugs.

ControlCutting of infected branches and needles should be done short after the smelting of the snow. New trees should be plant with enough space between them. Chemical control for Phacidium infestans is only useful in the beginning of an infection of few branches to prevent further spread. It must be applied in the autumn as prevention and for several years repeated till the tree growth half of his tree crown out of the snow.

IndexPhaeocryptopus gaeumannii51

Phaeocryptopus gaeumannii

Swiss needle cast (Engl.), russige Douglasienschütte (Deut.), ? (Franc.), ? (Ital.), Sajasti osip duglazije (Slowen.)

Host species Douglas fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii).

SymptomsDuring the summer one-year and older needles show in patches, yellowish to brownish disco-loration. In autumn and winter increased spill-brown needles of all years. The losses by third- year old needles are usually strongest. Needles are irregular and jagged. On the underside of a sitting or fallen needles arranged in numerous longitudinal stripes small black dots, the fruiting bodies of the fungus. In extreme cases, they form a dark, crusty layer. Infected needles can remain attached to the twigs for a long time, mostly shed only after 2-3 years. Causal agentCommon weak parasite of Douglas fir, often a consequence of or associated with frost damage, sometimes only following stand density (light deficiency, high air humidity). Reinfection of mostly young needles by spores which a spread by wind and rain. The susceptibility of Douglas fir needles increases after a disturbance of the water balance. The disease sometimes occurred epidemic in the last past decades.


EffectsBy normal infestation is no serious danger for the tree (infected needle is still able to assimilate). Heavy infestation results in significantly reduced Growth.

ControlNo curative measures recommended. Preventive measures: hygienic: thinning of plants, use of chemical compounds only in cultures or young stands, which are heavily infested: fungicide treatment as a prevention for the next season (repeated application). Proper c.

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