Micro Pros Essor

8/12/2019 Micro Pros Essor

1/29

microprocessor

Time:2010-01-29 01:45From:Elec_Intro Editor:Tiny Click:15423

Tosave money

Save money on

Microprocessor Money Managers Money Saving

Microprocessor - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia microprocessor n. An integrated circuit that contains

the entire central processing unit of a computer on a single . use microprocessor-controlled ignition . ->

HowStuffWorks "How Microproce
mailto:[email protected]://www.elec-intro.com/shop/oem-siemens-connector-c-96.htmlhttp://www.elec-intro.com/shop/usb1747cp3usb-ab-slc-503504505-plc-programming-adapter-p-354.htmlhttp://www.elec-intro.com/shop/tsxpcx3030usbrs485-cable-for-schneider-plc-programming-p-303.htmlhttp://www.elec-intro.com/shop/ic690usb901usbsnp-interface-ge-90-series-plc-programming-cable-p-299.htmlhttp://www.elec-intro.com/shop/usbcn226usb-portcable-for-cscjcqm1hcpm2c-series-plc-p-261.htmlhttp://www.elec-intro.com/shop/qc30r2programming-cable-for-qplc-3-meters-p-222.htmlhttp://www.elec-intro.com/shop/sc09red-standard-programming-cable-for-fx-and-a-series-plcs-p-217.htmlhttp://www.elec-intro.com/shop/cp5611a-pci-card-for-programming-devicespcs-with-pci-slot-p-270.htmlhttp://www.elec-intro.com/shop/usbmpi-v40usb-isolated-siemens-s7200300400-plc-adapter-p-356.htmlmailto:[email protected]://www.elec-intro.com/shop/oem-siemens-connector-c-96.htmlhttp://www.elec-intro.com/shop/usb1747cp3usb-ab-slc-503504505-plc-programming-adapter-p-354.htmlhttp://www.elec-intro.com/shop/tsxpcx3030usbrs485-cable-for-schneider-plc-programming-p-303.htmlhttp://www.elec-intro.com/shop/ic690usb901usbsnp-interface-ge-90-series-plc-programming-cable-p-299.htmlhttp://www.elec-intro.com/shop/usbcn226usb-portcable-for-cscjcqm1hcpm2c-series-plc-p-261.htmlhttp://www.elec-intro.com/shop/qc30r2programming-cable-for-qplc-3-meters-p-222.htmlhttp://www.elec-intro.com/shop/sc09red-standard-programming-cable-for-fx-and-a-series-plcs-p-217.htmlhttp://www.elec-intro.com/shop/cp5611a-pci-card-for-programming-devicespcs-with-pci-slot-p-270.htmlhttp://www.elec-intro.com/shop/usbmpi-v40usb-isolated-siemens-s7200300400-plc-adapter-p-356.htmlmailto:[email protected]://www.elec-intro.com/shop/oem-siemens-connector-c-96.htmlhttp://www.elec-intro.com/shop/usb1747cp3usb-ab-slc-503504505-plc-programming-adapter-p-354.htmlhttp://www.elec-intro.com/shop/tsxpcx3030usbrs485-cable-for-schneider-plc-programming-p-303.htmlhttp://www.elec-intro.com/shop/ic690usb901usbsnp-interface-ge-90-series-plc-programming-cable-p-299.htmlhttp://www.elec-intro.com/shop/usbcn226usb-portcable-for-cscjcqm1hcpm2c-series-plc-p-261.htmlhttp://www.elec-intro.com/shop/qc30r2programming-cable-for-qplc-3-meters-p-222.htmlhttp://www.elec-intro.com/shop/sc09red-standard-programming-cable-for-fx-and-a-series-plcs-p-217.htmlhttp://www.elec-intro.com/shop/cp5611a-pci-card-for-programming-devicespcs-with-pci-slot-p-270.htmlhttp://www.elec-intro.com/shop/usbmpi-v40usb-isolated-siemens-s7200300400-plc-adapter-p-356.htmlmailto:[email protected]://www.elec-intro.com/shop/oem-siemens-connector-c-96.htmlhttp://www.elec-intro.com/shop/usb1747cp3usb-ab-slc-503504505-plc-programming-adapter-p-354.htmlhttp://www.elec-intro.com/shop/tsxpcx3030usbrs485-cable-for-schneider-plc-programming-p-303.htmlhttp://www.elec-intro.com/shop/ic690usb901usbsnp-interface-ge-90-series-plc-programming-cable-p-299.htmlhttp://www.elec-intro.com/shop/usbcn226usb-portcable-for-cscjcqm1hcpm2c-series-plc-p-261.htmlhttp://www.elec-intro.com/shop/qc30r2programming-cable-for-qplc-3-meters-p-222.htmlhttp://www.elec-intro.com/shop/sc09red-standard-programming-cable-for-fx-and-a-series-plcs-p-217.htmlhttp://www.elec-intro.com/shop/cp5611a-pci-card-for-programming-devicespcs-with-pci-slot-p-270.htmlhttp://www.elec-intro.com/shop/usbmpi-v40usb-isolated-siemens-s7200300400-plc-adapter-p-356.htmlmailto:[email protected]://www.elec-intro.com/shop/oem-siemens-connector-c-96.htmlhttp://www.elec-intro.com/shop/usb1747cp3usb-ab-slc-503504505-plc-programming-adapter-p-354.htmlhttp://www.elec-intro.com/shop/tsxpcx3030usbrs485-cable-for-schneider-plc-programming-p-303.htmlhttp://www.elec-intro.com/shop/ic690usb901usbsnp-interface-ge-90-series-plc-programming-cable-p-299.htmlhttp://www.elec-intro.com/shop/usbcn226usb-portcable-for-cscjcqm1hcpm2c-series-plc-p-261.htmlhttp://www.elec-intro.com/shop/qc30r2programming-cable-for-qplc-3-meters-p-222.htmlhttp://www.elec-intro.com/shop/sc09red-standard-programming-cable-for-fx-and-a-series-plcs-p-217.htmlhttp://www.elec-intro.com/shop/cp5611a-pci-card-for-programming-devicespcs-with-pci-slot-p-270.htmlhttp://www.elec-intro.com/shop/usbmpi-v40usb-isolated-siemens-s7200300400-plc-adapter-p-356.htmlmailto:[email protected]://www.elec-intro.com/shop/oem-siemens-connector-c-96.htmlhttp://www.elec-intro.com/shop/usb1747cp3usb-ab-slc-503504505-plc-programming-adapter-p-354.htmlhttp://www.elec-intro.com/shop/tsxpcx3030usbrs485-cable-for-schneider-plc-programming-p-303.htmlhttp://www.elec-intro.com/shop/ic690usb901usbsnp-interface-ge-90-series-plc-programming-cable-p-299.htmlhttp://www.elec-intro.com/shop/usbcn226usb-portcable-for-cscjcqm1hcpm2c-series-plc-p-261.htmlhttp://www.elec-intro.com/shop/qc30r2programming-cable-for-qplc-3-meters-p-222.htmlhttp://www.elec-intro.com/shop/sc09red-standard-programming-cable-for-fx-and-a-series-plcs-p-217.htmlhttp://www.elec-intro.com/shop/cp5611a-pci-card-for-programming-devicespcs-with-pci-slot-p-270.htmlhttp://www.elec-intro.com/shop/usbmpi-v40usb-isolated-siemens-s7200300400-plc-adapter-p-356.htmlmailto:[email protected]://www.elec-intro.com/shop/oem-siemens-connector-c-96.htmlhttp://www.elec-intro.com/shop/usb1747cp3usb-ab-slc-503504505-plc-programming-adapter-p-354.htmlhttp://www.elec-intro.com/shop/tsxpcx3030usbrs485-cable-for-schneider-plc-programming-p-303.htmlhttp://www.elec-intro.com/shop/ic690usb901usbsnp-interface-ge-90-series-plc-programming-cable-p-299.htmlhttp://www.elec-intro.com/shop/usbcn226usb-portcable-for-cscjcqm1hcpm2c-series-plc-p-261.htmlhttp://www.elec-intro.com/shop/qc30r2programming-cable-for-qplc-3-meters-p-222.htmlhttp://www.elec-intro.com/shop/sc09red-standard-programming-cable-for-fx-and-a-series-plcs-p-217.htmlhttp://www.elec-intro.com/shop/cp5611a-pci-card-for-programming-devicespcs-with-pci-slot-p-270.htmlhttp://www.elec-intro.com/shop/usbmpi-v40usb-isolated-siemens-s7200300400-plc-adapter-p-356.htmlmailto:[email protected]://www.elec-intro.com/shop/oem-siemens-connector-c-96.htmlhttp://www.elec-intro.com/shop/usb1747cp3usb-ab-slc-503504505-plc-programming-adapter-p-354.htmlhttp://www.elec-intro.com/shop/tsxpcx3030usbrs485-cable-for-schneider-plc-programming-p-303.htmlhttp://www.elec-intro.com/shop/ic690usb901usbsnp-interface-ge-90-series-plc-programming-cable-p-299.htmlhttp://www.elec-intro.com/shop/usbcn226usb-portcable-for-cscjcqm1hcpm2c-series-plc-p-261.htmlhttp://www.elec-intro.com/shop/qc30r2programming-cable-for-qplc-3-meters-p-222.htmlhttp://www.elec-intro.com/shop/sc09red-standard-programming-cable-for-fx-and-a-series-plcs-p-217.htmlhttp://www.elec-intro.com/shop/cp5611a-pci-card-for-programming-devicespcs-with-pci-slot-p-270.htmlhttp://www.elec-intro.com/shop/usbmpi-v40usb-isolated-siemens-s7200300400-plc-adapter-p-356.htmlmailto:[email protected]://www.elec-intro.com/shop/oem-siemens-connector-c-96.htmlhttp://www.elec-intro.com/shop/usb1747cp3usb-ab-slc-503504505-plc-programming-adapter-p-354.htmlhttp://www.elec-intro.com/shop/tsxpcx3030usbrs485-cable-for-schneider-plc-programming-p-303.htmlhttp://www.elec-intro.com/shop/ic690usb901usbsnp-interface-ge-90-series-plc-programming-cable-p-299.htmlhttp://www.elec-intro.com/shop/usbcn226usb-portcable-for-cscjcqm1hcpm2c-series-plc-p-261.htmlhttp://www.elec-intro.com/shop/qc30r2programming-cable-for-qplc-3-meters-p-222.htmlhttp://www.elec-intro.com/shop/sc09red-standard-programming-cable-for-fx-and-a-series-plcs-p-217.htmlhttp://www.elec-intro.com/shop/cp5611a-pci-card-for-programming-devicespcs-with-pci-slot-p-270.htmlhttp://www.elec-intro.com/shop/usbmpi-v40usb-isolated-siemens-s7200300400-plc-adapter-p-356.htmlmailto:[email protected]://www.elec-intro.com/shop/oem-siemens-connector-c-96.htmlhttp://www.elec-intro.com/shop/usb1747cp3usb-ab-slc-503504505-plc-programming-adapter-p-354.htmlhttp://www.elec-intro.com/shop/tsxpcx3030usbrs485-cable-for-schneider-plc-programming-p-303.htmlhttp://www.elec-intro.com/shop/ic690usb901usbsnp-interface-ge-90-series-plc-programming-cable-p-299.htmlhttp://www.elec-intro.com/shop/usbcn226usb-portcable-for-cscjcqm1hcpm2c-series-plc-p-261.htmlhttp://www.elec-intro.com/shop/qc30r2programming-cable-for-qplc-3-meters-p-222.htmlhttp://www.elec-intro.com/shop/sc09red-standard-programming-cable-for-fx-and-a-series-plcs-p-217.htmlhttp://www.elec-intro.com/shop/cp5611a-pci-card-for-programming-devicespcs-with-pci-slot-p-270.htmlhttp://www.elec-intro.com/shop/usbmpi-v40usb-isolated-siemens-s7200300400-plc-adapter-p-356.html


2/29

Microprocessor - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

microprocessor n. An integrated circuit that contains the entire central processing unit of a computer on

a single . use microprocessor-controlled ignition . ->

HowStuffWorks "How Microprocessors Work"

Microprocessors are at the heart of all computers. Learn how microprocessors work and aboutmicroprocessor technology and development. Show Enhanced Format for this

Resultwww.howstuffworks.com/microprocessor.htm - 57k - CachedWhat is microprocessor? - a

definition from Whatis.comA microprocessor is a computer processor on a microchip. It's sometimes

called a logic chip. . Typical microprocessor operations include adding, subtracting, . ->
http://elec-intro.com/redirect.php?url=http%253a%2f%2fen.wikipedia.org%2fwiki%2fMicroprocessorhttp://elec-intro.com/redirect.php?url=http%253a%2f%2fen.wikipedia.org%2fwiki%2fMicroprocessorhttp://elec-intro.com/redirect.php?url=http%253a%2f%2fwww.howstuffworks.com%2fmicroprocessor.htmhttp://elec-intro.com/redirect.php?url=http%253a%2f%2fwww.howstuffworks.com%2fmicroprocessor.htmhttp://elec-intro.com/redirect.php?url=http%253a%2f%2fwww.howstuffworks.com%2fmicroprocessor.htmhttp://elec-intro.com/redirect.php?url=http%253a%2f%2fen.wikipedia.org%2fwiki%2fMicroprocessor


3/29

Dedicated "Backside" Cache Bus

Conventional processors use level 2 cache on the motherboard and connect to it using the

standard memory bus arrangement. To achieve better performance, many newer processors use adedicated high-speed bus to connect the processor to the level 2 cache. For example, the standardPentium 200 runs on a 66 MHz system bus, and the system cache runs at this speed as well, butthe Pentium Pro 200 has an integrated level 2 cache that runs at full processor speed--200 MHz.

A special backsidebus manages this high-speed data link between the processor and the level 2cache (which is entirely within the Pentium Pro package, since it contains both the processor andlevel 2 cache). The Pentium II processor has a compromise arrangement that is similar; it runs athalf the processor speed, so a 266 MHz Pentium II runs its cache bus at 133 MHz (much slowerthan the Pentium Pro but much faster than the Pentium). Both of these buses aretransactional(non-blocking)so they allow for concurrent requests to the system cache, greatly improving

performance.

Another advantage of this design is that having separate caches and buses to run them is farsuperior for multiprocessing. Not only does each processor have its own cache without having toshare a single one on the motherboard, each cache has an independent, non-interfering bus toservice it.
http://www.pcguide.com/ref/mbsys/cache/char_Transactional.htmhttp://www.pcguide.com/ref/mbsys/cache/char_Transactional.htmhttp://www.pcguide.com/ref/mbsys/cache/char_Transactional.htmhttp://www.pcguide.com/ref/mbsys/cache/char_Transactional.htmhttp://www.pcguide.com/ref/mbsys/cache/char_Transactional.htmhttp://www.pcguide.com/ref/mbsys/cache/char_Transactional.htm


4/29

Note:Intel calls the use of a separate bus for the cache and memoryDual Independent Bus(DIB) architecture.

Processor / Memory Data Bus

Every bus is composed of two distinct parts: the data bus and the address bus. The data bus iswhat most people refer to when talking about a bus; these are the lines that actually carry the databeing transferred. The wider the data part of the bus, the more information that can betransmitted simultaneously. Wider data buses generally mean higher performance. The speed ofthe bus is dictated by thesystem clock speedand is the other main driver of bus performance.

The bandwidth of the data bus is how much information can flow through it, and is a function ofthe bus width (in bits) and its speed (in MHz). You can think of the data bus as a highway; itswidth is the number of lanes and its speed is how fast the cars are traveling. The bandwidth thenis the amount of traffic the highway can carry in a given unit of time, which is a function of howmany lanes there are and how fast the cars can drive in them.

Memory bus bandwidth is extremely important in modern PCs, because it is often a mainbottleneck to system performance. With processors today running so much faster than other partsof the system, increasing the speed at which data can be fed to the processor from the "outside"usually has more of an impact on overall performance than speeding up the processor itself. Thisis why for example, a Pentium 150 is not much faster than a Pentium 133; the P150 runs on a 60MHz memory bus and the P133 on a 66 MHz bus. 10% more clock speed on the system busimproves overall performance much more than a 10% faster processor.

Address Bus Size and Maximum RAM for Specific Processors

The table below shows the address bus width and maximum system memory for variousprocessors. 32 bit address bus and 4 GB maximum addressability are by far the most common,and since it hasn't been a limiting factor in the vast majority of cases, there hasn't been a greatimpetus to widen the address space.Look here to see full details of all the characteristics for anyspecific processor.

ProcessorsAddress Bus

Width (bits)Maximum

System RAM

8088, 8086 20 1 MB

80286, 80386SX 24 16 MB

80386DX, 80486DX, 80486SX, 80486DX2, 80486DX4,AMD 5x86, Cyrix 5x86, Pentium, Pentium OverDrive,

Pentium with MMX, Pentium with MMX OverDrive,

6x86, K5, K6, 6x86MX

32 4 GB

Pentium Pro, Pentium II 36
http://www.pcguide.com/ref/cpu/arch/extClocks-c.htmlhttp://www.pcguide.com/ref/cpu/arch/extClocks-c.htmlhttp://www.pcguide.com/ref/cpu/arch/extClocks-c.htmlhttp://www.pcguide.com/ref/cpu/fam/index.htmhttp://www.pcguide.com/ref/cpu/fam/index.htmhttp://www.pcguide.com/ref/cpu/fam/index.htmhttp://www.pcguide.com/ref/cpu/fam/index.htmhttp://www.pcguide.com/ref/cpu/fam/index.htmhttp://www.pcguide.com/ref/cpu/fam/index.htmhttp://www.pcguide.com/ref/cpu/arch/extClocks-c.html


5/29

Data Bus Size and Bandwidth for Specific Processors

This table illustrates memory data bus size, speed and bandwidth for various processors. You cansee that while in recent years raw processors speeds have increased a great deal, memory busspeeds have remained somewhat stagnant, and memory system bandwidth has been essentially

unchanged since the introduction of the Pentium running on a 66 MHz system bus in 1994.Lookhere to see full details of all the characteristics for any specific processor.

There are three different tables, reflecting the three general speed ranges used by data buses inPCs over the last 15 years. In each table the processor family is listed along with the data buswidth. Then a column is provided showing the bus bandwidth in MB/sec corresponding to eachof the bus speeds normally used by the processor. Remember that processor clock multipliersmean that many 486 and later CPUs run at a multiple of the system bus speed.

Note:Many people (incorrectly) deduce the "size" of the processor from the width of thedata bus. For example, people see the 64-bit data bus width on the Pentium and conclude

that "the Pentium is a 64 bit processor". In fact, theinternal register sizeis whatdetermines the "size" of a processor (and based on this definition every processor introduced inthe last 10 years has been 32-bit).

First and second generation processors:

Processor

FamilyWidth

(bits)4.77

MHz6 MHz 8 MHz 10 MHz 12 MHz 16 MHz 20 MHz

8088 8 4.5 -- 7.6 -- -- -- --

8086 16 9.1 -- 15.3 19.1 -- -- --80286 16 -- 11.4 15.3 19.1 22.9 30.5 38.1

Third and fourth generation processors (plus Pentium OverDrive for 486):

Processor

FamilyWidth

(bits)16 MHz 20 MHz 25 MHz 33 MHz 40 MHz 50 MHz

80386DX 32 63.6 76.3 95.4 127.2 152.6 --

80386SX 16 31.8 38.1 47.7 63.6 -- --

80486DX 32 -- -- 95.4 127.2 -- 190.7

80486SX 32 63.6 76.3 95.4 127.2 -- --

80486DX2 32 -- -- 95.4 127.2 152.6 --

80486DX4 32 -- -- 95.4 127.2 152.6 --

AMD 5x86 32 -- -- -- 127.2 -- --
http://www.pcguide.com/ref/cpu/fam/index.htmhttp://www.pcguide.com/ref/cpu/fam/index.htmhttp://www.pcguide.com/ref/cpu/fam/index.htmhttp://www.pcguide.com/ref/cpu/fam/index.htmhttp://www.pcguide.com/ref/cpu/arch/int/comp_Registers.htmhttp://www.pcguide.com/ref/cpu/arch/int/comp_Registers.htmhttp://www.pcguide.com/ref/cpu/arch/int/comp_Registers.htmhttp://www.pcguide.com/ref/cpu/arch/int/comp_Registers.htmhttp://www.pcguide.com/ref/cpu/fam/index.htmhttp://www.pcguide.com/ref/cpu/fam/index.htm


6/29

Cyrix 5x86 32 -- -- -- 127.2 152.6 --

Pentium

OverDrive

(for

80486s)

32 -- -- 95.4 127.2 -- --

Fifth and sixth generation processors (except Pentium OverDrive for 486):

Processor

FamilyWidth

(bits)50 MHz 55 MHz 60 MHz 66 MHz 75 MHz

Pentium 64 381.5 -- 457.8 508.6 --

Pentium

OverDrive (for

Pentiums)64 381.5 -- 457.8 508.6 --

Pentium with

MMX 64 381.5 -- 457.8 508.6 --

Pentium with

MMX

OverDrive64 381.5 -- 457.8 508.6 --

6x86 64 381.5 419.6 457.8 508.6 572.2

K5 64 381.5 -- 457.8 508.6 --

Pentium Pro 64 -- -- 457.8 508.6 --

Pentium II 64 -- -- -- 508.6 --

K6 64 -- -- -- 508.6 --6x86MX 64 -- -- 457.8 508.6 572.2

Note:You may be somewhat confused by the bandwidth numbers I have listed in the tableabove. For example, shouldn't the bandwidth of a Pentium running on a 66 MHz bus be64/8*66.6=533.3 MB/sec? This is how most people and even companies write it, but this is nottechnically correct, because of the old problem ofdifferent definitions of what "M" stands for.The "M" in "MHz" is 1,000,000 (10^6), but the "M" in "MBytes/second" is 1,048,576 (2^20). Sothe bandwidth of the Pentium is more properly stated as 64/8*66.6*1,000,000/1,048,576=508.6MBytes/second.

Processor / Memory Address Bus

The address bus is the set of lines that carry information about where in memory the data is to betransferred to or from. No actual data is carried on this bus, rather memory addresses, whichcontrol the location that data is either read from or written to, are sent here. The speed of theaddress bus is the same as the data bus it is matched to.
http://www.pcguide.com/intro/fun/bindec.htmhttp://www.pcguide.com/intro/fun/bindec.htmhttp://www.pcguide.com/intro/fun/bindec.htmhttp://www.pcguide.com/intro/fun/bindec.htm


7/29

The width of the address bus controls the addressabilityof the processor, which is how muchsystem memory the processor can read or write to. Continuing the highway analogy, the addressbus carries the information about exit numbers for the cars to use. The wider the address bus, themore digits the exit number could have, and the more exits that could be supported on thehighway. The width of the address and data buses aren't linked; you can have a highway with

many lanes but few exits, or vice versa. Usually though, newer processors have both wider dataand address buses.

Address bus size is not something that is thought of very often, because it has no direct impacton performance. Processors usually can address far more physical memory than most people willever use, and in fact the system chipset or motherboard factors usually place much tighterrestrictions on maximum system memory than the processor does. For example, a Pentium cantheoretically address 4 GB of system memory, but most normal motherboards won't take evenone quarter that amount.

System Clocks

Every modern PC has multiple system clocks. Each of these vibrates at a specific frequency,normally measured in MHz (megahertz, or millions of cycles per second). A clock "tick" is thesmallest unit of time in which processing happens, and is sometimes called a cycle; some typesof work can be done in one cycle while others require many. The ticking of these clocks is whatdrives the various circuits in the PC, and the faster they tick, the more performance you get fromyour machine (other things being equal).

The original PCs had a unified system clock; a single clock (running at a very low speed like 8MHz) drove the processor, memory (there was no cache back then) and I/O bus. As PCs haveadvanced and different parts have gained in speed more than others, the need for multiple clocks

has arisen. A typical modern PC now has either four or five different clocks, running at different(but related) speeds. When the "system clock" is referred to generically, it normally refers to thespeed of the memory bus running on the motherboard (and not usually that of the processor).

The various clocks in the modern PC are created using a single clock generator circuit (on themotherboard) to generate the "main" system clock, and then various clock multiplier or dividercircuits to create the other signals. The table below shows the typical arrangement of clocks in a266 MHz Pentium II PC, and how they relate to each other:

Device / Bus Clock Speed (MHz) Generated As

Processor 266 System Clock * 4

Level 2 Cache 133System Clock * 2(or Processor / 2)

System (Memory) Bus 66

PCI Bus 33 System Clock / 2

ISA Bus 8.3 PCI Bus / 4


8/29

The entire system is tied to the speed of the system clock. This is why increasing the systemclock speed is usually more important than increasing the raw processor speed; the processorspends a great deal of time waiting on information from much slower devices, especially thesystem buses. While a faster processor will have greater performance, this increase in speed willnot lead to nearly as much performance improvement if the processor is spending a great deal of

time sitting idle waiting for other, slower parts of the system.

Multiprocessing

Multiprocessing is running a system with more than one processor. The theory is of course thatyou can double performance by using two processors instead of one. And the reality of course isthat it doesn't work this well, although multiprocessing can result in improved performanceunder certain conditions. In order to employ multiprocessing effectively, the computer systemmust have all of the following in place:

Motherboard Support:A motherboard capable of handling multiple processors. Thismeans additional sockets or slots for the extra chips, and a chipset capable of handling themultiprocessing arrangement.

Processor Support:Processors that are capable of being used in a multiprocessingsystem. Not all are, and in fact some versions of the same processor are while others arenot.

Operating System Support:An operating system that supports multiprocessing, such asWindows NT or one of the various flavors of UNIX.

In addition, multiprocessing is most effective when used with application software designedspecifically for it. Multiprocessing is managed by the operating system, which allocates differenttasks to be performed by the various processors in the system. Applications designed for use in

multiprocessing are said to be threaded, which means that they are broken into smaller routinesthat can be run independently. This allows the operating system to let these threads run on morethan one processor simultaneously, which is how multiprocessing results in improvedperformance. If the application isn't designed this way, then it can't take advantage of multipleprocessors, although the operating system can still make use of the additional processor(s) if youuse more than one application at a time (multitasking).

Multiprocessing can be said to be either asymmetricorsymmetric. The term refers to how theoperating system divides tasks between the processors in the system. Asymmetricmultiprocessing designates some processors to perform system tasks only, and others to runapplications only. This is a rigid design that results in lost performance during those times whenthe computer needs to run many system tasks and no user tasks, or vice versa. Symmetricmultiprocessing, often abbreviated SMP, allows either system or user tasks to run on anyprocessor, which is more flexible and therefore leads to better performance. SMP is what mostmultiprocessing PC motherboards use.

In order for a processor to support multiprocessing, it must support a multiprocessing protocol,which dictates the way that the processors and chipset will talk to each other to implement SMP.Intel processors such as the Pentium and Pentium Pro, use an SMP protocol calledAPIC, and


9/29


10/29

Processor Instruction Sets

The job of all processors is to execute instructions, which are the commands that make up themachine languagethat the processor understands. Most software programs are written in higher-level languages, but they must be translated into the processor's machine language in order for

the computer to run (execute) them. This is called compilingthe program to machine language.See here for more on the basics of software and machine language.

Taken collectively, all of the various instructions that the processor can execute are called itsinstruction set. The instruction set determines what sort of software can run on the processor; inorder for two processors to be compatible, they must (among other things) be able to execute thesame instructions. The number and type of instructions supported by the processor dictates therequirements for all software that uses it, and has a significant impact on performance as well.

Instruction Set Complexity: CISC vs. RISC

The primary objective of processor designers is to improve performance. Performance is definedas the amount of work that the processor can do in a given period of time. Different instructionsperform different amounts of work.

To increase performance, you can either have the processor execute instructions in less time, ormake each instruction it executes do more work. Increasing performance by executinginstructions in less time means increasing the clock speed of the processor. Making it do morework with each instruction means increasing the power and complexity of each instruction.Ideally you'd like to do both, of course, but it is a design tradeoff; it is hard to make morecomplex instructions run faster.

A real-life analogy would be to imagine you are pedaling a bicycle. To get where you are goingmore quickly, you can either use a low gear and pedal very quickly, or use a high gear and pushharder. You can try to push both harder andfaster, but you can never pedal as fast with a highgear as you can with a low one.

This tradeoff in basic instruction set design philosophy is reflected in the two main labels givento instruction sets. CISCstands for complex instruction set computerand is the name given toprocessors that use a large number of complicated instructions, to try to do more work with eachone.RISCstands for reduced instruction set computerand is the generic name given toprocessors that use a small number of simple instructions, to try to do less work with eachinstruction but execute them much faster.

The question of which of these two approaches to use in designing a processor has become oneof the great arguments of the computer world. This is especially true because once a platformmakes an instruction set decision, it tends to stick with it in order to ensure compatibility withexisting software. Somewhat ironically, the line between RISC and CISC has become blurred inrecent years, with each moving toward the middle ground in an attempt to improve performance.In addition, new ways to mixing RISC and CISC concepts have emerged through the use oftranslating processors.
http://www.pcguide.com/intro/works/comput.htmhttp://www.pcguide.com/intro/works/comput.htmhttp://www.pcguide.com/ref/cpu/arch/int/instEmulation-c.htmlhttp://www.pcguide.com/ref/cpu/arch/int/instEmulation-c.htmlhttp://www.pcguide.com/ref/cpu/arch/int/instEmulation-c.htmlhttp://www.pcguide.com/intro/works/comput.htm


11/29

The advent of low-cost computers on integrated circuits has transformed modern society. General-

purpose microprocessors inpersonal computersare used for computation, text editing,

multimedia display, and communication over theInternet.Many more microprocessors are part of

embedded systems,providing digital control over myriad objects from appliances toautomobiles tocellular phonesand industrial process contro

Microprocessor

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Intel 4004,the first commercial microprocessor

A microprocessorincorporates the functions of acomputer'scentral processing unit(CPU) on asingleintegrated circuit(IC),[1]or at most a few integrated circuits.[2]All modern CPUs aremicroprocessors making the micro-prefix redundant. The microprocessor is a multipurpose,programmabledevice that acceptsdigital dataas input, processes it according to instructionsstored in its memory, and provides results as output. It is an example ofsequential digital logic,as it has internal memory. Microprocessors operate on numbers and symbols represented in thebinary numeral system.

The advent of low-cost computers on integrated circuits has transformed modern society.General-purpose microprocessors inpersonal computersare used for computation, text editing,multimedia display, and communication over theInternet.Many more microprocessors are partofembedded systems,providing digital control over myriad objects from appliances toautomobiles tocellular phonesand industrial process control.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Personal_computerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Personal_computerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Personal_computerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internethttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internethttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internethttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Embedded_systemhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Embedded_systemhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cellular_phonehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cellular_phonehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cellular_phonehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intel_4004http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intel_4004http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central_processing_unithttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central_processing_unithttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central_processing_unithttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Integrated_circuithttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Integrated_circuithttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Integrated_circuithttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microprocessor#cite_note-Osborne80-1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microprocessor#cite_note-Osborne80-1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microprocessor#cite_note-Osborne80-1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microprocessor#cite_note-2http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microprocessor#cite_note-2http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microprocessor#cite_note-2http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_programhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_programhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_datahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_datahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_datahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sequential_logichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sequential_logichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sequential_logichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Binary_numeral_systemhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Binary_numeral_systemhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Personal_computerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Personal_computerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Personal_computerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internethttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internethttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internethttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Embedded_systemhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Embedded_systemhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Embedded_systemhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cellular_phonehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cellular_phonehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cellular_phonehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Intel_4004.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Intel_4004.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Intel_4004.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Intel_4004.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cellular_phonehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Embedded_systemhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internethttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Personal_computerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Binary_numeral_systemhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sequential_logichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_datahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_programhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microprocessor#cite_note-2http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microprocessor#cite_note-Osborne80-1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Integrated_circuithttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central_processing_unithttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intel_4004http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cellular_phonehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Embedded_systemhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internethttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Personal_computer


12/29

Intel introduced its first 4-bit microprocessor 4004 in 1971 and its 8-bit microprocessor 8008 in1972. During the 1960s, computer processors were constructed out of small and medium-scaleICseach containing from tens oftransistorsto a few hundred. These were placed and solderedonto printed circuit boards, and often multiple boards were interconnected in a chassis. The largenumber of discretelogic gatesused more electrical powerand therefore produced more heat

than a more integrated design with fewer ICs. The distance that signals had to travel between ICson the boards limited a computer's operating speed.

In theNASAApollo space missions to themoonin the 1960s and 1970s, all onboardcomputations for primary guidance, navigation and control were provided by a small customprocessor called "TheApollo Guidance Computer". It used wire wrap circuit boards whose onlylogic elementswere three-inputNOR gates.[3]

The integration of a whole CPU onto a singlechipor on a few chips greatly reduced the cost ofprocessing power. The integrated circuit processor was produced in large numbers by highlyautomated processes, so unit cost was low. Single-chip processors increase reliability as there are

many fewer electrical connections to fail. As microprocessor designs get faster, the cost ofmanufacturing a chip (with smaller components built on a semiconductor chip the same size)generally stays the same.

Microprocessors integrated into one or a few large-scale ICs the architectures that had previouslybeen implemented using many medium- and small-scale integrated circuits. Continued increasesin microprocessor capacity have rendered other forms of computers almost completely obsolete(seehistory of computing hardware), with one or more microprocessors used in everything fromthe smallestembedded systemsandhandheld devicesto the largestmainframesandsupercomputers.

The first microprocessors emerged in the early 1970s and were used for electroniccalculators,usingbinary-coded decimal(BCD) arithmetic on 4-bitwords.Otherembeddeduses of 4-bit and8-bit microprocessors, such as terminals,printers,various kinds ofautomationetc., followedsoon after. Affordable 8-bit microprocessors with 16-bit addressing also led to the first general-purposemicrocomputersfrom the mid-1970s on.

Since the early 1970s, the increase in capacity of microprocessors has followedMoore's law;thisoriginally suggested that the number of components that can be fitted onto a chip doubles everyyear. With present technology, it is actually every two years,[4]and as such Moore later changedthe period to two years.[5]

Contents 1 Embedded applications 2 Structure 3 Firsts

o 3.1 CADCo 3.2 Gilbert Hyatto 3.3 TMS 1000
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transistorshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transistorshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transistorshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Logic_gatehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Logic_gatehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Logic_gatehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NASAhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NASAhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NASAhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apollo_Guidance_Computerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apollo_Guidance_Computerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Logic_gatehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Logic_gatehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NOR_gatehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NOR_gatehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microprocessor#cite_note-3http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microprocessor#cite_note-3http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microprocessor#cite_note-3http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Integrated_circuithttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Integrated_circuithttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Integrated_circuithttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_computing_hardwarehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_computing_hardwarehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_computing_hardwarehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Embedded_systemhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Embedded_systemhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Embedded_systemhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Handheld_devicehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Handheld_devicehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Handheld_devicehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mainframe_computerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mainframe_computerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mainframe_computerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supercomputerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supercomputerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calculatorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calculatorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calculatorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Binary-coded_decimalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Binary-coded_decimalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Binary-coded_decimalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Word_%28data_type%29http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Word_%28data_type%29http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Word_%28data_type%29http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Embedded_systemhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Embedded_systemhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Embedded_systemhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_terminalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_terminalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_printerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_printerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_printerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Automationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Automationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Automationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microcomputerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microcomputerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microcomputerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moore%27s_lawhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moore%27s_lawhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moore%27s_lawhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microprocessor#cite_note-4http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microprocessor#cite_note-4http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microprocessor#cite_note-4http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microprocessor#cite_note-5http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microprocessor#cite_note-5http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microprocessor#cite_note-5http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microprocessor#Embedded_applicationshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microprocessor#Embedded_applicationshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microprocessor#Structurehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microprocessor#Structurehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microprocessor#Firstshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microprocessor#Firstshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microprocessor#CADChttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microprocessor#CADChttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microprocessor#Gilbert_Hyatthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microprocessor#Gilbert_Hyatthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microprocessor#TMS_1000http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microprocessor#TMS_1000http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microprocessor#TMS_1000http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microprocessor#Gilbert_Hyatthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microprocessor#CADChttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microprocessor#Firstshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microprocessor#Structurehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microprocessor#Embedded_applicationshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microprocessor#cite_note-5http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microprocessor#cite_note-4http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moore%27s_lawhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microcomputerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Automationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_printerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_terminalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Embedded_systemhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Word_%28data_type%29http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Binary-coded_decimalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calculatorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supercomputerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mainframe_computerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Handheld_devicehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Embedded_systemhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_computing_hardwarehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Integrated_circuithttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microprocessor#cite_note-3http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NOR_gatehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Logic_gatehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apollo_Guidance_Computerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NASAhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Logic_gatehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transistors


13/29

o 3.4 Intel 4004o 3.5 Pico/General Instrumento 3.6 Four-Phase Systems AL1

4 8-bit designs 5 12-bit designs 6 16-bit designs 7 32-bit designs 8 64-bit designs in personal computers 9 Multicore designs 10 RISC 11 Special-purpose designs 12 Market statistics 13 See also 14 Notes 15 References 16 External links

Embedded applications

Thousands of items that were traditionally not computer-related include microprocessors. Theseinclude large and small householdappliances,cars (and their accessory equipment units), carkeys, tools and test instruments, toys, light switches/dimmers andelectrical circuit breakers,smoke alarms, battery packs, and hi-fi audio/visual components (fromDVDplayers tophonograph turntables). Such products as cellular telephones,DVD videosystem andHDTVbroadcast systems fundamentally require consumer devices with powerful, low-cost,microprocessors. Increasingly stringent pollution control standards effectively requireautomobile manufacturers to use microprocessor engine management systems, to allow optimal

control of emissions over widely varying operating conditions of an automobile. Non-programmable controls would require complex, bulky, or costly implementation to achieve theresults possible with a microprocessor.

A microprocessor control program (embedded software)can be easily tailored to different needsof a product line, allowing upgrades in performance with minimal redesign of the product.Different features can be implemented in different models of a product line at negligibleproduction cost.

Microprocessor control of a system can provide control strategies that would be impractical toimplement using electromechanical controls or purpose-built electronic controls. For example, an

engine control system in an automobile can adjust ignition timing based on engine speed, load onthe engine, ambient temperature, and any observed tendency for knockingallowing anautomobile to operate on a range of fuel grades.

Structure
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microprocessor#Intel_4004http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microprocessor#Intel_4004http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microprocessor#Pico.2FGeneral_Instrumenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microprocessor#Pico.2FGeneral_Instrumenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microprocessor#Four-Phase_Systems_AL1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microprocessor#Four-Phase_Systems_AL1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microprocessor#8-bit_designshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microprocessor#8-bit_designshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microprocessor#12-bit_designshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microprocessor#12-bit_designshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microprocessor#16-bit_designshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microprocessor#16-bit_designshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microprocessor#32-bit_designshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microprocessor#32-bit_designshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microprocessor#64-bit_designs_in_personal_computershttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microprocessor#64-bit_designs_in_personal_computershttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microprocessor#Multicore_designshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microprocessor#Multicore_designshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microprocessor#RISChttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microprocessor#RISChttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microprocessor#Special-purpose_designshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microprocessor#Special-purpose_designshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microprocessor#Market_statisticshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microprocessor#Market_statisticshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microprocessor#See_alsohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microprocessor#See_alsohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microprocessor#Noteshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microprocessor#Noteshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microprocessor#Referenceshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microprocessor#Referenceshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microprocessor#External_linkshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microprocessor#External_linkshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Home_appliancehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Home_appliancehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Home_appliancehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arc-fault_circuit_interrupterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arc-fault_circuit_interrupterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arc-fault_circuit_interrupterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DVDhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DVDhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DVDhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phonograph#Turntable_technologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phonograph#Turntable_technologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DVD_videohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DVD_videohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DVD_videohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HDTVhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HDTVhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HDTVhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Embedded_softwarehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Embedded_softwarehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Embedded_softwarehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Embedded_softwarehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HDTVhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DVD_videohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phonograph#Turntable_technologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DVDhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arc-fault_circuit_interrupterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Home_appliancehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microprocessor#External_linkshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microprocessor#Referenceshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microprocessor#Noteshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microprocessor#See_alsohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microprocessor#Market_statisticshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microprocessor#Special-purpose_designshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microprocessor#RISChttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microprocessor#Multicore_designshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microprocessor#64-bit_designs_in_personal_computershttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microprocessor#32-bit_designshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microprocessor#16-bit_designshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microprocessor#12-bit_designshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microprocessor#8-bit_designshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microprocessor#Four-Phase_Systems_AL1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microprocessor#Pico.2FGeneral_Instrumenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microprocessor#Intel_4004


14/29

A block diagram of the internal architecture of the Z80 microprocessor, showing the arithmetic and logic

section, register file, control logic section, and buffers to external address and data lines

The internal arrangement of a microprocessor varies depending on the age of the design and theintended purposes of the processor. The complexity of an integrated circuit is bounded byphysical limitations of the number of transistors that can be put onto one chip, the number of

package terminations that can connect the processor to other parts of the system, the number ofinterconnections it is possible to make on the chip, and the heat that the chip can dissipate.Advancing technology makes more complex and powerful chips feasible to manufacture.

A minimal hypothetical microprocessor might only include anarithmetic logic unit(ALU) and acontrol logic section. The ALU performs operations such as addition, subtraction, and operationssuch as AND or OR. Each operation of the ALU sets one or more flags in a status register, whichindicate the results of the last operation (zero value, negative number, overflow, or others). Thelogic section retrieves instruction operation codes from memory, and initiates whatever sequenceof operations of the ALU requires to carry out the instruction. A single operation code mightaffect many individual data paths, registers, and other elements of the processor.

As integrated circuit technology advanced, it was feasible to manufacture more and morecomplex processors on a single chip. The size of data objects became larger; allowing moretransistors on a chip allowed word sizes to increase from 4- and 8-bit words up to today's 64-bitwords. Additional features were added to the processor architecture; more on-chip registers spedup programs, and complex instructions could be used to make more compact programs. Floating-point arithmetic, for example, was often not available on 8-bit microprocessors, but had to becarried out in software. Integration of thefloating point unitfirst as a separate integrated circuitand then as part of the same microprocessor chip, sped up floating point calculations.

Occasionally, physical limitations of integrated circuits made such practices as abit slice

approach necessary. Instead of processing all of a long word on one integrated circuit, multiplecircuits in parallel processed subsets of each data word. While this required extra logic to handle,for example, carry and overflow within each slice, the result was a system that could handle, say,32-bit words using integrated circuits with a capacity for only 4 bits each.

With the ability to put large numbers of transistors on one chip, it becomes feasible to integratememory on the same die as the processor. ThisCPU cachehas the advantage of faster accessthan off-chip memory, and increases the processing speed of the system for many applications.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arithmetic_logic_unithttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arithmetic_logic_unithttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arithmetic_logic_unithttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Floating_point_unithttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Floating_point_unithttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Floating_point_unithttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bit_slicinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bit_slicinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bit_slicinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CPU_cachehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CPU_cachehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CPU_cachehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Z80_arch.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Z80_arch.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Z80_arch.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Z80_arch.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CPU_cachehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bit_slicinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Floating_point_unithttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arithmetic_logic_unit


15/29

Generally, processor speed has increased more rapidly than external memory speed, so cachememory is necessary if the processor is not delayed by slower external memory.

Firsts

Three projects delivered a microprocessor at about the same time:Garrett AiResearch'sCentralAir Data Computer(CAD8),Texas Instruments(TI) TMS 1000 (1971 September), andIntel's4004(1971 November).

CADC

This section relies onreferencestoprimary sources.Please add references tosecondary or

tertiary sources.(March 2010)

For more details on this topic, seeCentral Air Data Computer.

In 1968,Garrett AiResearch(which employed designersRay Holtand Steve Geller) was invitedto produce a digital computer to compete withelectromechanicalsystems then underdevelopment for the main flight control computer in theUS Navy's newF-14 Tomcatfighter.The design was complete by 1970, and used aMOS-based chipset as the core CPU. The designwas significantly (approximately 20 times) smaller and much more reliable than the mechanicalsystems it competed against, and was used in all of the early Tomcat models. This systemcontained "a 20-bit,pipelined,parallelmulti-microprocessor". The Navy refused to allowpublication of the design until 1997. For this reason theCADC,and theMP944chipset it used,are fairly unknown.[6]Ray HoltgraduatedCalifornia Polytechnic Universityin 1968, and beganhis computer design career with the CADC. From its inception, it was shrouded in secrecy until1998 when at Holt's request, the US Navy allowed the documents into the public domain. Since

then people

[who?]

have debated whether this was the first microprocessor. Holt has stated that noone has compared this microprocessor with those that came later.[7]According to Parab et al.(2007), "The scientific papers and literature published around 1971 reveal that the MP944digital processor used for the F-14 Tomcat aircraft of the US Navy qualifies as the first

microprocessor. Although interesting, it was not a single-chip processor, as was not the Intel

4004they both were more like a set of parallel building blocks you could use to make ageneral-purpose form. It contains a CPU, RAM, ROM, and two other support chips like the Intel

4004. Interestingly, it was made from the sameP-channeltechnology, operated atmilitary

specificationsand had larger chips -- an excellent computer engineering design by anystandards. Its design indicates a major advance over Intel, and two year earlier. It actually

worked and was flying in the F-14 when the Intel 4004 was announced. It indicates that todays

industry theme of convergingDSP-microcontrollerarchitectures was started in 1971."[8]This

convergence of DSP and microcontroller architectures is known as adigital signalcontroller.[citation needed]
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Garrett_AiResearchhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Garrett_AiResearchhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Garrett_AiResearchhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central_Air_Data_Computerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central_Air_Data_Computerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central_Air_Data_Computerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central_Air_Data_Computerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Texas_Instrumentshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Texas_Instrumentshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Texas_Instrumentshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intelhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intelhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intelhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intel_4004http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intel_4004http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiabilityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiabilityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiabilityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:No_original_research#Primary.2C_secondary_and_tertiary_sourceshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:No_original_research#Primary.2C_secondary_and_tertiary_sourceshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:No_original_research#Primary.2C_secondary_and_tertiary_sourceshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:No_original_research#Primary.2C_secondary_and_tertiary_sourceshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:No_original_research#Primary.2C_secondary_and_tertiary_sourceshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:No_original_research#Primary.2C_secondary_and_tertiary_sourceshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:No_original_research#Primary.2C_secondary_and_tertiary_sourceshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central_Air_Data_Computerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central_Air_Data_Computerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central_Air_Data_Computerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Garrett_AiResearchhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Garrett_AiResearchhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Garrett_AiResearchhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ray_Holthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ray_Holthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ray_Holthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electromechanicalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electromechanicalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electromechanicalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/US_Navyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/US_Navyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/US_Navyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/F-14_Tomcathttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/F-14_Tomcathttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/F-14_Tomcathttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MOSFEThttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MOSFEThttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MOSFEThttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pipeline_%28computing%29http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pipeline_%28computing%29http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pipeline_%28computing%29http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parallel_computinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parallel_computinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multiprocessorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multiprocessorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central_Air_Data_Computerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central_Air_Data_Computerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central_Air_Data_Computerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MP944http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MP944http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MP944http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microprocessor#cite_note-6http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microprocessor#cite_note-6http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ray_Holthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ray_Holthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ray_Holthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/California_Polytechnic_State_Universityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/California_Polytechnic_State_Universityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/California_Polytechnic_State_Universityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Avoid_weasel_wordshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Avoid_weasel_wordshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Avoid_weasel_wordshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microprocessor#cite_note-7http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microprocessor#cite_note-7http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microprocessor#cite_note-7http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMOS_logichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMOS_logichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMOS_logichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Military_Standardhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Military_Standardhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Military_Standardhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Military_Standardhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_signal_processorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_signal_processorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microcontrollerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microcontrollerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microcontrollerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microprocessor#cite_note-8http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microprocessor#cite_note-8http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microprocessor#cite_note-8http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_signal_controllerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_signal_controllerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_signal_controllerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_signal_controllerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_neededhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_neededhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_neededhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_neededhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_signal_controllerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_signal_controllerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microprocessor#cite_note-8http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microcontrollerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_signal_processorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Military_Standardhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Military_Standardhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMOS_logichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microprocessor#cite_note-7http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Avoid_weasel_wordshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/California_Polytechnic_State_Universityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ray_Holthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microprocessor#cite_note-6http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MP944http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central_Air_Data_Computerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multiprocessorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parallel_computinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pipeline_%28computing%29http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MOSFEThttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/F-14_Tomcathttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/US_Navyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electromechanicalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ray_Holthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Garrett_AiResearchhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central_Air_Data_Computerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:No_original_research#Primary.2C_secondary_and_tertiary_sourceshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:No_original_research#Primary.2C_secondary_and_tertiary_sourceshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:No_original_research#Primary.2C_secondary_and_tertiary_sourceshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiabilityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intel_4004http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intelhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Texas_Instrumentshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central_Air_Data_Computerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central_Air_Data_Computerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Garrett_AiResearch


16/29

Gilbert Hyatt

Gilbert Hyatt was awarded a patent claiming an invention pre-dating both TI and Intel,describing a "microcontroller".[9]The patent was later invalidated, but not before substantialroyalties were paid out.[10][11]

TMS 1000

TheSmithsonian InstitutionsaysTIengineers Gary Boone and Michael Cochran succeeded increating the first microcontroller (also called a microcomputer) and the first single-chip CPU in1971. The result of their work was the TMS 1000, which went commercial in 1974.[12]TIstressed the 4-bit TMS 1000 for use in pre-programmed embedded applications, introducing aversion called the TMS1802NC on September 17, 1971 that implemented a calculator on a chip.

TI filed for a patent on the microprocessor. Gary Boone was awardedU.S. Patent 3,757,306forthe single-chip microprocessor architecture on September 4, 1973. In 1971 and again in 1976,

Intel and TI entered into broad patent cross-licensing agreements, with Intel paying royalties toTI for the microprocessor patent. A history of these events is contained in court documentationfrom a legal dispute between Cyrix and Intel, with TI asintervenorand owner of themicroprocessor patent.

A computer-on-a-chip combines the microprocessor core (CPU), memory, and I/O (input/output)lines onto onechip.The computer-on-a-chip patent, called the "microcomputer patent" at thetime,U.S. Patent 4,074,351,was awarded to Gary Boone and Michael J. Cochran of TI. Asidefrom this patent, the standard meaning ofmicrocomputeris a computer using one or moremicroprocessors as its CPU(s), while the concept defined in the patent is more akin to amicrocontroller.

Intel 4004

The4004with cover removed (left) and as actually used (right)

Main article:Intel 4004

TheIntel 4004is generally regarded as the first commercially available microprocessor,[13][14]and cost $60.[15]The first known advertisement for the 4004 is dated November 15, 1971 andappeared inElectronic News.[16]The project that produced the 4004 originated in 1969, whenBusicom,a Japanese calculator manufacturer, asked Intel to build a chipset for high-performancedesktop calculators. Busicom's original design called for a programmable chip set consisting ofseven different chips. Three of the chips were to make a special-purpose CPU with its program
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microprocessor#cite_note-Hyatt_patent-9http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microprocessor#cite_note-Hyatt_patent-9http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microprocessor#cite_note-Hyatt_patent-9http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microprocessor#cite_note-10http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microprocessor#cite_note-10http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microprocessor#cite_note-10http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Smithsonian_Institutionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Smithsonian_Institutionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Smithsonian_Institutionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Texas_Instrumentshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Texas_Instrumentshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Texas_Instrumentshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microprocessor#cite_note-12http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microprocessor#cite_note-12http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microprocessor#cite_note-12http://www.google.com/patents/US3757306http://www.google.com/patents/US3757306http://www.google.com/patents/US3757306http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/intervenorhttp://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/intervenorhttp://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/intervenorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Input/outputhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Input/outputhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Input/outputhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Integrated_circuithttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Integrated_circuithttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Integrated_circuithttp://www.google.com/patents/US4074351http://www.google.com/patents/US4074351http://www.google.com/patents/US4074351http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microcomputerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microcomputerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microcomputerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microcontrollerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microcontrollerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intel_4004http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intel_4004http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intel_4004http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intel_4004http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intel_4004http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intel_4004http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intel_4004http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intel_4004http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intel_4004http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microprocessor#cite_note-13http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microprocessor#cite_note-13http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microprocessor#cite_note-13http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microprocessor#cite_note-15http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microprocessor#cite_note-15http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microprocessor#cite_note-15http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronic_Newshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronic_Newshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microprocessor#cite_note-16http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microprocessor#cite_note-16http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microprocessor#cite_note-16http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Busicomhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Busicomhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:C4004_(Intel).jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:C4004_(Intel).jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:C4004_(Intel).jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:C4004_(Intel).jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Busicomhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microprocessor#cite_note-16http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronic_Newshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microprocessor#cite_note-15http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microprocessor#cite_note-13http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microprocessor#cite_note-13http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intel_4004http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intel_4004http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intel_4004http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microcontrollerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microcomputerhttp://www.google.com/patents/US4074351http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Integrated_circuithttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Input/outputhttp://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/intervenorhttp://www.google.com/patents/US3757306http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microprocessor#cite_note-12http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Texas_Instrumentshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Smithsonian_Institutionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microprocessor#cite_note-10http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microprocessor#cite_note-10http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microprocessor#cite_note-Hyatt_patent-9


17/29

stored in ROM and its data stored in shift register read-write memory.Ted Hoff,the Intelengineer assigned to evaluate the project, believed the Busicom design could be simplified byusing dynamic RAM storage for data, rather than shift register memory, and a more traditionalgeneral-purpose CPU architecture. Hoff came up with a fourchip architectural proposal: a ROMchip for storing the programs, a dynamic RAM chip for storing data, a simple I/O device and a 4-

bit central processing unit (CPU). Although not a chip designer, he felt the CPU could beintegrated into a single chip, but as he lacked the technical know-how the idea remained just awish for the time being.

While the architecture and specifications of the MCS-4 came from the interaction of Hoff withStanley Mazor,a software engineer reporting to him, and with Busicom engineerMasatoshiShima,during 1969, Mazor and Hoff moved on to other projects. In April 1970, Intel hiredItalian-born engineerFederico Fagginas project leader, a move that ultimately made the single-chip CPU final design a reality (Shima meanwhile designed the Busicom calculator firmwareand assisted Faggin during the first six months of the implementation). Faggin, who originallydeveloped thesilicon gatetechnology (SGT) in 1968 atFairchild Semiconductor[17]and designed

the worlds first commercial integrated circuit using SGT, the Fairchild 3708, had the correctbackground to lead the project into what would become the first commercial general purposemicroprocessor. Since SGT was his very own invention, it in addition to his new methodologyforrandom logicdesign made it possible to implement a single-chip CPU with the proper speed,power dissipation and cost. The manager of Intel's MOS Design Department wasLeslie L.Vadszat the time of the MCS-4 development, but Vadasz's attention was completely focused onthe mainstream business of semiconductor memories and he left the leadership and themanagement of the MCS-4 project to Faggin, who was ultimately responsible for leading the4004 project to its realization. Production units of the 4004 were first delivered to Busicom inMarch 1971 and shipped to other customers in late 1971.[citation needed]

Pico/General Instrument

The PICO1/GI250 chip introduced in 1971. This was designed by Pico Electronics (Glenrothes, Scotland)

and manufactured by General Instrument of Hicksville NY
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ted_Hoffhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ted_Hoffhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ted_Hoffhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stanley_Mazorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stanley_Mazorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Masatoshi_Shimahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Masatoshi_Shimahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Masatoshi_Shimahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Masatoshi_Shimahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Federico_Fagginhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Federico_Fagginhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Federico_Fagginhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Silicon_gatehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Silicon_gatehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Silicon_gatehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fairchild_Semiconductorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fairchild_Semiconductorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fairchild_Semiconductorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fairchild_Semiconductorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Random_logichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Random_logichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Random_logichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leslie_L._Vad%C3%A1szhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leslie_L._Vad%C3%A1szhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leslie_L._Vad%C3%A1szhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leslie_L._Vad%C3%A1szhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_neededhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_neededhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_neededhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:GI250_PICO1_die_photo.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:GI250_PICO1_die_photo.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:GI250_PICO1_die_photo.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:GI250_PICO1_die_photo.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_neededhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leslie_L._Vad%C3%A1szhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leslie_L._Vad%C3%A1szhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Random_logichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fairchild_Semiconductorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fairchild_Semiconductorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Silicon_gatehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Federico_Fagginhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Masatoshi_Shimahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Masatoshi_Shimahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stanley_Mazorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ted_Hoff


18/29

In 1971 Pico Electronics[18]andGeneral Instrument(GI) introduced their first collaboration inICs, a complete single chip calculator IC for the Monroe/Litton Royal Digital III calculator. Thischip could also arguably lay claim to be one of the first microprocessors or microcontrollershavingROM,RAMand aRISCinstruction set on-chip. The layout for the four layers of thePMOSprocess was hand drawn at x500 scale on mylar film, a significant task at the time given

the complexity of the chip.

Pico was a spinout by five GI design engineers whose vision was to create single chip calculatorICs. They had significant previous design experience on multiple calculator chipsets with bothGI andMarconi-Elliott.[19]The key team members had originally been tasked byElliottAutomationto create an 8 bit computer in MOS and had helped establish a MOS ResearchLaboratory inGlenrothes,Scotland in 1967.

Calculators were becoming the largest single market for semiconductors and Pico and GI wenton to have significant success in this burgeoning market. GI continued to innovate inmicroprocessors and microcontrollers with products including the CP1600, IOB1680 and

PIC1650.

[20]

In 1987 the GI Microelectronics business was spun out into themicrochipPICmicrocontrollerbusiness.

Four-Phase Systems AL1

TheFour-Phase Systems AL1was an 8-bitbit slicechip containing eight registers and anALU.[21]It was designed by Lee Boysel in 1969.[22][23][24]At the time, it formed part of a nine-chip, 24-bit CPU with three AL1s, but it was later called a microprocessor when, in response to1990s litigation byTexas Instruments,a demonstration system was constructed where a singleAL1 formed part of a courtroom demonstration computer system, together with RAM, ROM,and an input-output device.[25]

8-bit designs

This section and the sections below needs additional citations forverification.Please help

improve this articlebyadding citations to reliable sources.Unsourced material may be

challenged and removed. (June 2011)

The Intel 4004 was followed in 1972 by theIntel 8008,the world's first8-bitmicroprocessor.The 8008 was not, however, an extension of the 4004 design, but instead the culmination of aseparate design project at Intel, arising from a contract withComputer Terminals Corporation,ofSan Antonio TX, for a chip for a terminal they were designing,[26]theDatapoint 2200fundamental aspects of the design came not from Intel but from CTC. In 1968, CTC's Vic Poorand Harry Pyle developed the original design for theinstruction setand operation of theprocessor. In 1969, CTC contracted two companies,IntelandTexas Instruments,to make asingle-chip implementation, known as the CTC 1201.[27]In late 1970 or early 1971, TI droppedout being unable to make a reliable part. In 1970, with Intel yet to deliver the part, CTC opted touse their own implementation in the Datapoint 2200, using traditional TTL logic instead (thus
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microprocessor#cite_note-18http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microprocessor#cite_note-18http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/General_Instrumenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/General_Instrumenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/General_Instrumenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Read-only_memoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Read-only_memoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Read-only_memoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Random-access_memoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Random-access_memoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Random-access_memoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RISChttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RISChttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RISChttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMOS_logichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMOS_logichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elliott_Automationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elliott_Automationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microprocessor#cite_note-19http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microprocessor#cite_note-19http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microprocessor#cite_note-19http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elliott_Automationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elliott_Automationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elliott_Automationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elliott_Automationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glenrotheshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glenrotheshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glenrotheshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microprocessor#cite_note-20http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microprocessor#cite_note-20http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microprocessor#cite_note-20http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microchiphttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microchiphttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PIC_microcontrollerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PIC_microcontrollerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PIC_microcontrollerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PIC_microcontrollerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Four-Phase_Systems_AL1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Four-Phase_Systems_AL1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Four-Phase_Systems_AL1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bit_slicehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bit_slicehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bit_slicehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microprocessor#cite_note-21http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microprocessor#cite_note-21http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microprocessor#cite_note-21http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microprocessor#cite_note-22http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microprocessor#cite_note-22http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microprocessor#cite_note-24http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microprocessor#cite_note-24http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Texas_Instrumentshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Texas_Instrumentshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Texas_Instrumentshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microprocessor#cite_note-25http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microprocessor#cite_note-25http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microprocessor#cite_note-25http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiabilityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiabilityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiabilityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Microprocessor&action=edithttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Microprocessor&action=edithttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:Introduction_to_referencing/1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:Introduction_to_referencing/1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:Introduction_to_referencing/1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intel_8008http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intel_8008http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intel_8008http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/8-bithttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/8-bithttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/8-bithttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Datapointhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Datapointhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Datapointhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microprocessor#cite_note-mit-comp-history-26http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microprocessor#cite_note-mit-comp-history-26http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microprocessor#cite_note-mit-comp-history-26http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Datapoint_2200http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Datapoint_2200http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Datapoint_2200http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Instruction_sethttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Instruction_sethttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Instruction_sethttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intelhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intelhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intelhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Texas_Instrumentshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Texas_Instrumentshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Texas_Instrumentshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microprocessor#cite_note-forgotten-history-27http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microprocessor#cite_note-forgotten-history-27http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microprocessor#cite_note-forgotten-history-27http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microprocessor#cite_note-forgotten-history-27http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Texas_Instrumentshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intelhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Instruction_sethttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Datapoint_2200http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microprocessor#cite_note-mit-comp-history-26http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Datapointhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/8-bithttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intel_8008http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:Introduction_to_referencing/1http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Microprocessor&action=edithttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiabilityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microprocessor#cite_note-25http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Texas_Instrumentshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microprocessor#cite_note-24http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microprocessor#cite_note-22http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microprocessor#cite_note-22http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microprocessor#cite_note-21http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bit_slicehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Four-Phase_Systems_AL1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PIC_microcontrollerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PIC_microcontrollerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microchiphttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microprocessor#cite_note-20http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glenrotheshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elliott_Automationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elliott_Automationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microprocessor#cite_note-19http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elliott_Automationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMOS_logichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RISChttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Random-access_memoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Read-only_memoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/General_Instrumenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microprocessor#cite_note-18


19/29

the first machine to run 8008 code was not in fact a microprocessor at all and was delivered a

year earlier). Intel's version of the 1201 microprocessor arrived in late 1971, but was too late,slow, and required a number of additional support chips. CTC had no interest in using it. CTChad originally contracted Intel for the chip, and would have owed them $50,000 for their designwork.[27]To avoid paying for a chip they did not want (and could not use), CTC released Intel

from their contract and allowed them free use of the design.

[27]

Intel marketed it as the 8008 inApril, 1972, as the world's first 8-bit microprocessor. It was the basis for the famous "Mark-8"computer kit advertised in the magazineRadio-Electronicsin 1974.

The 8008 was the precursor to the very successfulIntel 8080(1974), which offered muchimproved performance over the 8008 and required fewer support chips,Zilog Z80(1976), andderivative Intel 8-bit processors. The competingMotorola 6800was released August 1974 andthe similarMOS Technology 6502in 1975 (both designed largely by the same people). The 6502family rivaled the Z80 in popularity during the 1980s.

A low overall cost, small packaging, simplecomputer busrequirements, and sometimes the

integration of extra circuitry (e.g. the Z80's built-inmemory refreshcircuitry) allowed thehomecomputer"revolution" to accelerate sharply in the early 1980s. This delivered such inexpensivemachines as theSinclair ZX-81,which sold forUS$99. A variation of the 6502, theMOSTechnology 6510was used in theCommodore 64and yet another variant, the8502,powered theCommodore 128.

The Western Design Center, Inc(WDC) introduced the CMOS65C02in 1982 and licensed thedesign to several firms. It was used as the CPU in theApple IIeandIIcpersonal computers aswell as in medical implantable gradepacemakersanddefibrillators,automotive, industrial andconsumer devices. WDC pioneered the licensing of microprocessor designs, later followed byARMand other microprocessorintellectual property(IP) providers in the 1990s.

Motorola introduced theMC6809in 1978, an ambitious and well thought-through 8-bit designwhich wassource compatiblewith the6800and was implemented using purelyhard-wiredlogic.(Subsequent 16-bit microprocessors typically usedmicrocodeto some extent, as CISC designrequirements were getting too complex for pure hard-wired logic.)

Another early 8-bit microprocessor was theSignetics 2650,which enjoyed a brief surge ofinterest due to its innovative and powerfulinstruction setarchitecture.

A seminal microprocessor in the world of spaceflight wasRCA'sRCA 1802(aka CDP1802,RCA COSMAC) (introduced in 1976), which was used on board theGalileoprobe to Jupiter(launched 1989, arrived 1995). RCA COSMAC was the first to implementCMOStechnology.The CDP1802 was used because it could be run at verylow power,and because a variant wasavailable fabricated using a special production process,silicon on sapphire(SOS), whichprovided much better protection againstcosmic radiationandelectrostatic dischargethan that ofany other processor of the era. Thus, the SOS version of the 1802 was said to be the firstradiation-hardened microprocessor.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microprocessor#cite_note-forgotten-history-27http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microprocessor#cite_note-forgotten-history-27http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microprocessor#cite_note-forgotten-history-27http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microprocessor#cite_note-forgotten-history-27http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microprocessor#cite_note-forgotten-history-27http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microprocessor#cite_note-forgotten-history-27http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mark-8http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mark-8http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radio-Electronicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radio-Electronicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radio-Electronicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intel_8080http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intel_8080http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intel_8080http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zilog_Z80http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zilog_Z80http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zilog_Z80http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motorola_6800http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motorola_6800http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motorola_6800http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MOS_Technology_6502http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MOS_Technology_6502http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MOS_Technology_6502http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_bushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_bushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_bushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Memory_refreshhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Memory_refreshhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Memory_refreshhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Home_computerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Home_computerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Home_computerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Home_computerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sinclair_ZX-81http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sinclair_ZX-81http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sinclair_ZX-81http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_dollarhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_dollarhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MOS_Technology_6510http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MOS_Technology_6510http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MOS_Technology_6510http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MOS_Technology_6510http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commodore_64http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commodore_64http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commodore_64http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/8502http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/8502http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/8502http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commodore_128http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commodore_128http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western_Design_Centerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western_Design_Centerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/65C02http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/65C02http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/65C02http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apple_IIehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apple_IIehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apple_IIehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apple_IIchttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apple_IIchttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apple_IIchttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pacemakerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pacemakerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pacemakerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Defibrillatorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Defibrillatorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Defibrillatorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ARM_architecturehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ARM_architecturehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intellectual_propertyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intellectual_propertyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intellectual_propertyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motorola_6809http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motorola_6809http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motorola_6809http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Source_compatiblehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Source_compatiblehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Source_compatiblehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motorola_6800http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motorola_6800http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motorola_6800http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hard-wiredhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hard-wiredhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hard-wiredhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microcodehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microcodehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microcodehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Signetics_2650http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Signetics_2650http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Signetics_2650http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Instruction_sethttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Instruction_sethttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Instruction_sethttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radio_Corporation_of_Americahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radio_Corporation_of_Americahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radio_Co

Micro Pros Essor

Documents

Transcript of Micro Pros Essor