McCabe, M. & Ricciardelli, L. (2003).

8/18/2019 McCabe, M. & Ricciardelli, L. (2003).

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The Journal of Social Psychology,

2003,

143{\),

5-26

Sociocultural Influences on

Body Image and Body Changes

Among Adolescent Boys and Girls

MARITA P McCABE

LINA A. RICCIARDELLI

School of Psychology

Deakin University,

Victoria,

Australia

ABSTRACT.

In 2

studies,

the

authors evaluated

the

role

of

parents, peers,

and the

media

in body image

and

body-change strategies among adolescent boys

and

girls.

The

respon-

dents

for

Study 1 (423 bo ys

and

377 girls) com pleted

the

Body Image

and

Body Change

Inventory

(L. A.

Ricciardelli

M. P.

McCabe, 2002)

and the

Perceived Sociocultural

Influences

on

Body Image

and

Body Change Q uestionnaire (M .

P

McCabe

L. A.

Ric-

ciardelli, 2001b). Body mass index

and age

were also included

in the

analyses. Regres-

sion analyses demonstrated that sociocultural influences

and

feedback from

the

partici-

pant's best male friend were important predictors

for all

body-change strategies among

boys.

For

girls, sociocultural influences

and

feedback from

the

participa nt's best female

friend

and

mo ther w ere impo rtant predictors

for

body-change strategies.

The

most

con-

sistent predictor

of

weight loss, weight gain,

and

strategies

to

increase muscles was body-

image importance.

In

Study

2, the

authors examined

the

influence

of the

same socio-

cultural variables,

as

well

as

negative affect and puberty

on

body image

and

body-change

strategies among

a

second group

of

199 boys

and

267 girls. The results demonstrated that

a broad range

of

sociocultural influences predicted body-change strategies

for

boys

and

girls, with negative affect also having

a

unique influence

for

boys

but

not

for

girls. Puber-

ty played

a

minor role, once o ther sociocultural variables were en tered into the regression

equation. The implications

of

these findings

are

discussed.

Key words: adolescence, body image, media influence, parental influence, peer influence,

puberty, teenage dieting

ADOLESCENCE is a time of change, and the family and peer groups provide

messages to adolescents that shape their behavior in a range of areas. In recent

years researchers have increasingly focused on the role of parental, peer, and

media in the body image and dieting behaviors of adolescents. One limitation


2/23

The Journal of Social Psychology

research, we evaluated the influences of feedback by parents, peers, and the

media on adolescent boys as well as adolescent girls, and we considered

weight-gain strategies and behaviors to increase m uscle tone as well as w eight-

loss strategies.

Most past research on family influences has evaluated the role of the family

(particularly the mother) in predicting various types of weight-loss strategies

among their daughters. Very little research has investigated parental influences

on the eating beh aviors of adolescent boy s or explored strategies that may be more

relevant to boys (weight gain, muscle increase). The family, particularly the moth-

er, is perceived as the primary socialization agent wh o transmits m essages to ado-

lescents regarding their appearance and eating practices. For example. Pike and

Rodin (1991) examined the dieting behaviors of mothers of adolescent girls with

disordered eating and found that they were more likely to also have experienced

disordered eating than were the mothers of girls who did not experience disor-

dered eating. They were also more likely to believe that their daughters should

lose weight. Through modeling and encouragement from their mothers, girls with

eating disorders were more likely to be rewarded for engaging in these behaviors

than girls who did not experience eating disorders. Likewise, Kent and Clopton

(1992) found that bulimic girls were more likely to have family members who

also experienced weight and eating problems, and Moreno and Thelen (1993)

found that bulimic girls were more likely to have mothers who encouraged them

to lose weight and restrict their food intake.

Benedikt, Wertheim, and Love (1998) and Paxton et al. (1991) found that

mothers' encouragement to diet increased dieting behavior among adolescent

girls. Dixon, Adair, and O'Connor (1996) also found that parental encouragement

to diet (separate questions were not asked for mother and father) was associated

with both body dissatisfaction and dieting behaviors among adolescent girls.

However, there was no overall association between the dieting practices of par-

ents and those of adolescent girls, although fathers' dieting behavior was associ-

ated with some aspects of their daughters' dieting behaviors. Keel, Heatherton,

Hamden, and Homig (1997) also found that although fathers influenced their

daughters' body dissatisfaction but not their eating practices, mothers had a

greater influence on their daughters' dieting behaviors.

In contrast to these findings, Steiger, Stotland, Ghadiriam, and Whitehead

(1995) found no difference among binge eaters, dieters, and nondieters in the

eating concerns of family members. The authors suggested that rather than an

actual eating disturbance, it may be a general tendency toward some form of

psychopathology that is associated with eating disturbance among adolescent

girls.

A follow-up study by Steiger, Stotland, Trottier, and Ghadiriam (1996)


3/23

McCabe & Ricciardelli

indicated that there was some association between daughters' and mothers' eat-

ing concerns, but that the strongest influence on disordered eating among ado-

lescent girls was psychopathological traits of parents. Other researchers have

also reported that parents of eating-d isordere d ado lescents d id not differ from

control-group parents on dietary restraint or eating disturbances (Evans & le

Grange, 1995; Leon, Fulkerson, Perry, & Dube, 1994), although some studies

have revealed a relationship between mothers' eating restraint and that of their

daughters but not of their sons (Ruther & Richman, 1993; Scourfield, 1995;

Thelen & Cormier, 1995).

The results from the aforementioned studies dem onstrate a lack of clarity in

the extent to which m others and fathers m ay influence body satisfaction and dis-

turbed eating among adolescent boys and girls, with a particular focus on girls.

Furthermore, that research has focused on weight loss but neglected considera-

tion of strategies to gain weight and increase muscle tone. These are strategies

that may be particularly relevant to adolescent boys, but the impact of parental

feedback on these strategies has not been explored. It is important to determine

the nature of the feedback provided to adolescent boys, how it differs from that

provided to adolescent girls, and the impact of this feedback on weight gain and

strategies to increase muscle, as well as weight loss.

Peers also seem to exert some pressure among adolescent girls who adopt

extreme weight-loss behaviors. Bulimics report being pressured by their peers

to engage in both bingeing and purging (Mitchell, Hatsukami, Pyle, & Eckert,

1986;

Stice, Nemeroff, & Shaw, 1996). In contrast, Paxton et al. (1991) claimed

that few female friends encouraged dieting, and Gibbs (1986) found that the

self-reported number of friends who were currently dieting was not a signifi-

cant predictor of disordered eating among high school girls. The inconsistency

in these findings is probably related to differences in the extent of eating prob-

lems among the adolesc ents in the various studies and to the different measure s

of disordered eating.

A substantial body of literature has evaluated the media's impact on ado-

lescent body image and disordered eating among girls. As for the other socio-

cultural influences, the media's impact on body dissatisfaction and weight loss

among boys has been neglected, as well as the research on weight gain and

strategies to increase m uscles. Because som e boys w ho are in early adolescence

evidence a desire to increase body bulk, but others evidence a desire to increase

muscle tone (McCabe & Ricciardelli, 2001a), we consider these two dimensions

separately. This separation also seems to be important given our limited under-

standing of body-change strategies adopted by adolescent boys and the confu-

sion in the literature regarding the use of the terms increase w eigh t and


4/23

The Journal of Social Psychology

sures and intemalization of social standards of appearance were significant pre-

dictors of body image , eating dysfunction, and self-esteem among a group of col-

lege women. However, Posavac, Posavac, and Posavac (1998) found in a series

of studies that media images were more likely to influence women who already

experienced weight concerns, with women with low body dissatisfaction being

less likely to respond to media influences. Griffiths and McCabe (2000) found

that although perceived views of society predicted body dissatisfaction among

adolescent girls, these sociocultural pressures did not predict disordered eating

after the researchers accounted for a range of other biological and psychological

adjustment variables.

Few studies have examined the combined effects of family, peers, and the

med ia within a single research d esign. In particular, no studies have examined the

impact of these variables on adolescent boys and their strategies to increase

weight and muscle tone. Levine, Smolak, and Hayden (1994) assessed eating

behavior, body satisfaction, and concern about being slender among 385 girls

aged 10 to 14 years. The authors found that the media and teasing and criticism

by the family were the strongest predictors of body dissatisfaction and drive for

thinness. Family and peers, but not the media, were found to be the strongest

influences on bulimic symptomatology among young adult women (Stice, 1998).

Stice found that this influence took place through social reinforcement and mod-

eling, a finding that is supported by earlier research. Taylor et al. (1998) found

that peers were the strongest influence on weight concerns among high school

girls,

although the media also significantly influenced concerns about weight.

Perceived pressure to be thin from family, friends, dating partners, and the media

has been shown to be related to bulimic symptoms (Irving, 1990; Stice, Ziemba,

Margolis, & Flick, 1996).

Most studies have focused on girls and on weight-loss behaviors. Whether

the same relationships apply to boys or to other body-chan ge strategies is unclear.

Ricciardelli, McCabe, and Banfield (2000) found that parents, siblings, friends,

and the media were perceived by about one third of the adolescent boys in their

study to have an influence on their feelings about their body and their body-

change strategies. However, there were only 40 participants in this study, so it is

not possible to extend the fmdings to adolescent boys in general. Obtaining a bet-

ter understanding of sociocultural influences on body dissatisfaction and body-

change behaviors among adolescent boys requires inclusion of all the major

sociocultural influences—mother, father, best male friend, best female friend, and

media—within the single study. It is also vital to investigate the impact of these

influences on strategies to increase weight and muscle tone as well as strategies

for weight loss, because these are behaviors that are more likely to move boys


5/23

McCabe & Ricciardelli

parents, peers, and the media on body image, weight loss, weight gain, and strate-

gies to increase muscle tone on young adolescent boys and girls.

STUDY 1

Method

Participants

The respondents were 800 adolescents (423 boys, 377 girls) who were

enrolled in Grades 7 -1 0 . The mean age for the boys was 13.92 years (SD = 1.18),

and for the girls it was 13.69 {SD -

1.11).

These respondents were drawn from

six coeducational high schools in Melbourne, Australia. The respondents were

largely Anglo-Saxon (77% ); the remainde r were largely of European descent, and

a minority were of Asian descent.

Materials

All respondents provided demographic information on age, weight, and

height. They also completed the Body Image and Body Change Inventory (Ric-

ciardelli & McCabe, 2002) and the Perceived Sociocultural Influences on Body

Image and Body Change Questionnaire (McCabe & Ricciardelli, 2001b). The

Body Image and Body Change Inventory consists of seven scales: Body Image

Satisfaction (e.g., How satisfied are you with your weigh t? ). Body Image

Impo rtance (e.g., How important is the size of your muscles com pared to other

things in your life? ); Body Chan ge Strategies to Decrease W eight (e.g., How

often do you eat less to lose weight? ); Body Change Strategies to Increase

Weight (e.g., How often do you exercise mo re to put on weigh t? ); Body C hange

Strategies to Increase M uscle Tone (e.g., How often d o you chan ge your eating

to mak e your muscles bigger? ); Binge Eating (e.g., How often do you quickly

eat a large amou nt of food? ); and Food Supplemen ts (e.g., How often do you

take food supplements or diet pills to lose weight? ). These scales have been

shown to be reliable and valid in a series of four studies using 1,732 adolescent

boys and girls. The scales have been subjected to both exploratory and confir-

matory factor analysis using oblique rotation. They demonstrate high levels of

internal consistency (r > .92), concurrent and discriminant validity, and satisfac-

tory test—retest reliability (r > .75; Ricciardelli & McCabe, 2002). The advan-

tage of these scales over existing measures is that they evaluate areas of body

image concern and body-change strategies that have relevance to boys as well as

girls (e.g., strategies to increase weight and muscle, use of food supplements).


6/23

10 The Journal of Social Psychology

and Media Influences. Each of the four feedback scales has been shown to fac-

tor into three subscales assessing general feedback (e.g., W hat type of feedback

do you receive from your father abou t the size or shape of your bod y? ); encour-

agement, teasing, and behavioral example to gain weight and increase muscle

tone (e.g., Does your mother encourage you to become more muscular? ); and

encouragement, teasing, and behavioral example to lose weight and increase mus-

cle tone (e.g., Doe s your best male friend try to put on weigh t? ). Three items

that assessed feedback to increase m uscle tone loaded with both strategies to gain

weight and strategies to lose weight, and so were included in both scales (M cCabe

& R icciardelli, 2001b ). The M edia Influences Scale has been shown to form three

subscales assessing pressure to lose weight (e.g., Do you think the med ia give

you the idea that you should exercise more to lose weight? ); pressure to gain

weight (e.g., Do you think the media give you the idea that you should eat more

to gain weight? ); and pressure to increase mu scle tone (e.g., Do you think the

media give you the idea you shou ld be more m uscu lar? ). All of these scales have

demonstrated high levels of internal consistency (r > .84) and have been subject

to both exploratory and confirmatory factor analysis using oblique rotation

(McCabe & Ricciardelli, 2001b). The advantage of these scales over existing

measures is that they evaluate the role of a number of possible sociocultural influ-

ences within one questionnaire, and they also evaluate the extent to which these

sociocultural infiuences are perceived to generate message s that relate to increas-

ing weight and muscles as well as losing weight.

Procedure

Permission was received from the Department of Education for high schools

within the State of Victoria to participate in a study of body image and body-

change techniques among adolescent boys and girls. Parental consent and student

consent were both obtained before respondents completed the questionnaire. All

but 2% of the respondents who were asked to take part in the study agreed to do

so . The questionnaire was completed during a single class period.

Results and Discussion

An examination of the responses to the Perceived Sociocultural Influences on

Body Im age and Body C hange Questionnaire indicated that there was a great deal

of consistency in the perceived messages received from mother, father, best male

friend, and best female friend in relation to each of the body-change strategies.

Therefore, the messages regarding eating and exercise from these four socio-


7/23

Mc Cabe & Ricciardelli 11

.78; girls a

=

.73). The intercorrelations between each of

these

new perceived socio-

cultural influences were as follows: decrease weight with increase weight {r = .23),

decrease weight with increase muscle {r = .45), and increase weight with increase

muscle (r = .49). The three general feedback items regarding body size and shape

for each of the four sociocultural influences were retained as separate scales,

because the general feedback about body showed lower correlations with each of

the sociocultural infiuences

(r

.29). The Media Infiuences Scale was separated

into three subscales assessing perceived pressure from the media to decrease

weight, perceived pressure from the media to increase weight, and perceived pres-

sure from the media to increase muscles.

Seven standard multiple regression analyses were conducted separately for

boys and girls to examine the infiuence of parents, peers, and the media on body

image and body-change strategies. The dependent variables were body-image sat-

isfaction, body-image importance, strategies to decrease weight, strategies to

increase weight, strategies to increase muscle tone, binge eating, and food sup-

plements. The independ ent variables for each analysis were age, body m ass index

(BMI), feedback from mother, feedback from father, feedback from best male

friend, feedback from best female friend, sociocultural infiuences to increase

weight, sociocultural infiuences to decrease weight, sociocultural infiuences to

increase muscles, media pressure to lose weight, media pressure to gain weight,

and media pressure to increase muscle tone. For each of the body-change strate-

gies,

body-image importance and body-image satisfaction were also entered into

the regression equations. Body-image importance was also included in the body-

image-satisfaction equations, and body-image satisfaction was included in the

body-image-importance equations.

Summaries of the regression equations for boys and girls are contained in

Tables and 2 . Only significant predictors are included in those tables, although

all variables were included in the regression equations. The results demonstrate

that the sociocultural variables more frequently predicted body image and body-

chan ge strategies than did the biological variables of age and BM I, although these

biological variables played a greater role for boys than for girls. For boys, age

was a unique predictor for body-image satisfaction and strategies to decrease

weight, and BMI was also a unique predictor for strategies to decrease weight, as

well as for the use of food supplements. The only significant relationship for girls

was where BMI uniquely predicted levels of body-image satisfaction. Overall,

the sociocultural variables included in this study explained a minimum to mod-

erate amount of the variance in body image and body-change strategies among

adolescent boys or girls (between 9% and 46% of the variance).

Perceived sociocultural pressures played a u nique role in predicting all of the


8/23


TABLE 1

Summary of Regression Analyses for Boys, Study 1

Dependent

variable F Unique predictor

Satisfaction

Importance

5.17*** (13, 409)

3.05*** (13, 409)

Decrease weight 15.21***(14, 408)

Increase weight

10.11

* * * (14, 408)

Increase muscles 8.40*** (14, 408)

Binge eating 3.41*** (14, 408)

Food supplements

8.09***

(14, 408)

14

09

34

26

22

t l

22

Age

Importance

Feedback-father

Pressure-decrease weight

Media-increase muscles

Satisfaction

Feedback-best female

friend

Pressure-increase

muscles

Age

BM I

Satisfaction

Importance


Pressure-increase weight

Pressu re-i ncrease

muscles

Media pressure-decrease

weight

Media pressure-increase

muscles

Importance

Feedback-best male

friend

Pressure-increase

muscles

Media-increase weight

Importance

Feedback-best male

friend

Pressure-increase

muscles

Importance

BMI

Feedback-mother


Pressure-increase

.10*

- .18***

- .19**

.24**

.23**

- .19***

- .20**

.25**

-.14**

.16***

.14**

.18***

42***

- .17*

.15*

.34***

- . 3 1 * * *

.21***

-.14*

.30***

.20**

.25***

- .17**

.39***

.11*

.16**

.14*

.17*


9/23

McCabe

Ricciardelli

13

TABLE 2

Summary of Regression A nalyses for Girls, Study

Dependent

variable

Satisfaction

Importance

Decrease weight

Increase weight

Increase muscles

Binge eating

Food supplements

Note. BMI = body mass

*p


10/23


that sociocultural pressures directed at adolescent boys are related to their achiev-

ing a slitn, muscular body (Drewnowski, Kurth, & Krahn, 1995; McCabe & Ric-

ciardelli, 2001a; Pope, Olivardia, Gruber, & Borowiecki, 1999). The interesting

aspect of this study is that the data empirically dem onstrate that not only are these

messages being generated by these sociocultural influences, but also they are

actually having an impact on both the body image and body-change strategies

that are adopted by adolescent boys. The fact that perceived messages about

strategies to increase muscles (and to a lesser extent strategies to increase weight)

influenced such a broad range of body image and body-change strategies among

adolescent boys indicates that adolescent boys as well as adolescent girls are

influenced by these sociocultural forces.

Interestingly, it is not possible to identify a single major source of socio-

cultural influence that is likely to have the most impact. As opposed to previous

studies that have suggested that both mothers and fathers influence body image

and body-change strategies among adolescent boys (Ricciardelli et al., 2000), we

found that feedback from father was a unique predictor for body-image satisfac-

tion, feedback from mother was a unique predictor for food supplements, feed-

back from best male friend was a unique predictor for strategies to increase mus-

cle tone and increase weight, and feedback from best female friend was a unique

predictor for body-image importance.

A surprising finding in the present study was that the significant sociocultural

predictors among adolescent girls were perceived pressures to increase weight

and increase m uscles, as well as to decrease w eight. Perceived sociocultural pres-

sures to decrease weight uniquely predicted body-image satisfaction, strategies

to increase weight, and strategies to decrease weight; perceived pressures to

increase muscles uniquely predicted strategies to decrease weight, strategies to

increase muscle tone, and the use of food supplements; perceived pressures to

increase weight uniquely predicted strategies to increase weight, strategies to

increase muscle tone, and binge eating.

These results highlight the importance of determining the actual messages

that are perceived to be delivered by sociocultural influences. Past research has

focused primarily on messages to decrease weight (e.g., Benedikt et al., 1998;

Paxton et al., 19 91; Pike & R odin, 1991), but this study w ould suggest that the

body-change strategies that adolescent girls engage in are shaped by messages to

increase muscle tone and increase weight, as well as messages to decrease w eight.

Consistent with previous research, feedback from the mother and, to a less-

er extent from the best female friend, were the most important influences shap-

ing both body image and behavior. Feedback from mother uniquely predicted

body-image satisfaction and importance, as well as the use of food supplements.


11/23

M cCabe & Ricciardelli 15

from best female friend predicted the use of food supplements and strategies to

increase weight. Surprisingly, feedback from the best female friend did not pre-

dict weight-loss behaviors among adolescent girls. These findings are supported

by the results of Paxton et al. (1991) and Gibbs (1986), but contrast with other

findings (e.g., Mitchell et al., 1986; Stice et al., 1996). Perhaps feedback from

friends predicts weight-loss behaviors only for adolescents who are already

engaging in extreme weight-loss strategies (e.g., bulimia, anorexia). Gaining

weight among adolescent girls has received little research attention, and so the

role of sociocultural infiuences on predicting those behaviors is unclear. These

results need to be further investigated to determine whether they are found in a

different group of adolescent girls.

The media did not play a strong role in body image or body-change strate-

gies, particularly among adolescent boys. However, media infiuences to lose

weight were a unique predictor of strategies to lose weight; media infiuences to

increase weight were a unique predictor of strategies to increase weight; and

media infiuences to increase muscle predicted body-image satisfaction among

adolescent boys. Among adolescent girls, media pressure to increase weight

uniquely predicted both body-image importance and the use of food supplements,

and media pressure to decrease weight uniquely predicted body-image satisfac-

tion and strategies to decrease weight. These findings would suggest (a) that the

media are sending messages about the ideal body shape for boys that are consis-

tent with the body-chang e strategies they are using and (b) that body satisfaction

relates to the media messages they are getting about their muscles. Consistent

with the findings of Cusimano and Thompson (1997), media pressures uniquely

predicted body image, strategies to decrease weight, and use of food supplem ents.

These results are inconsistent with the findings of Posavac et al. (1998), who

found that the media infiuenced weight-loss behaviors only among those adoles-

cent girls who were engaged in extreme weight-loss behaviors.

Body-image im portance was a unique predictor of most body -change behav-

iors among both adolescent girls and boys. This may suggest that only girls and

boys who place a high importance on their body image will engage in behaviors

to alter their body weight and shape. The importance placed on body image in

terms of predicting body-change strategies was a surprising finding and one that

needs to be validated and explored further.

STUDY 2

The results of Study demonstrated that although self-reported sociocultur-

al infiuences explained only a limited amou nt of the variance, they played a more


12/23

16 The Journal of Social Psycholog y

second study to determine whether these findings would be replicated in anoth-

er sample of adolescent boys and girls.

In addition. Study 2 included pubertal development and negative affect.

Although a range of other variables have been associated with body-change

strategies, particularly among adolescent girls, these two variables were seen to

be most likely to contribute additional unique variance beyond that provided by

the current set of variables. Puberty was chosen because the respondents for this

study were adolescent boys and girls, and so the changes in body form at this

stage of development were expected to affect both body image and body-change

strategies. Negative affect was included as an additional variable because of the

strong relationships demonstrated in previous studies between negative affect and

body dissatisfaction and weight loss among adolescent

girls.

It seemed important,

therefore, to determine if these previous findings also extended to other body-

change strategies and to body-change strategies among adolescent boys. The lit-

erature that argues for the inclusion of these two variables as well as the socio-

cultural and other biodevelopmental variables is outlined below.

Although both pubertal development and negative affect have been linked to

body dissatisfaction, dieting behaviors, and binge eating—particularly among

adolescent girls—their role regarding other kinds of body-change strategies has

yet to be determined. With pubertal development, girls experience a normative

increase in body fat that inevitably moves them further away from society's ideal

body shape for a woman. Therefore, it is not surprising that several studies have

found puberty to be associated with higher levels of body dissatisfaction and dis-

ordered eating among girls (e.g., Attie & Brooks-Gunn, 1989; Dombusch et al.,

1984;

Gralen, Levine, Smolak, & M urnen, 1990; Keel, Fulkerson, & Leon, 1997;

Swarr & Richards, 1996). In contrast, three studies that included boys failed to

find any relationship between pubertal development and disordered eating (e.g..

Keel et al., 1997; Leon, F ulkerson, Perry, & Early-Zald, 1995; Vincent &

McCabe, 2000). In contrast to puberty in girls, puberty moves the majority of

boys closer to society's ideal body shape for boys. Therefore, pubertal develop-

ment for boys may be more closely related to strategies to increase weight and

increase muscle tone.

Negative affect has been shown to be closely related to body dissatisfaction,

weight-loss strategies, and binge eating among women and adolescent girls (e.g.,

Killen et al., 1994; Leon, Fulkerson, Perry, Keel, & Klump , 1999; Ricciardelli

& McCabe, 2001; Shepherd & Ricciardelli, 1998; Stice, Hayward, Cameron,

Killen, & Taylor, 2000; Stice, Shaw, & Nemeroff, 1998; Thom pson, Coovert,

Richards, Johnson, & Cattarin, 1995). Fewer studies have examined the same

relationships among men and adolescent boys, and findings have not been con-


13/23

McC abe & Ricciardelli 17

dence to support this view (e.g., Keel, Fulkerson, et al., 1997; Leon et al., 1995;

Wertheim et al., 1992). In Study 2, we further examined (a) these relationships

for adolescent boys and (b) the role of negative affect in relation to weight gain

and increasing muscles, as well as to weight loss.

Method

Participants

The respondents were 466 adolescents (199 boys, 267 girls) who were

enrolled in Grades 7 -1 0 . The mean age for the boys was 14.02 years (SD =

1.00),

and the mean age for girls was 13.92 years (SD = 0.94). These respondents were

drawn from four coeducational high schools in Melbourne, Australia. The

respondents were largely Anglo-Saxon (82%); the remainder were mostly of

European origin, and a minority were of Asian descent.

Materials

The sam e questionnaires as for Study 1 were com pleted by all participants.

In addition, all participants completed the Pubertal D evelopmen t Sca le (Petersen,

Crockett, Richards, & Boxer, 1988) and the Depression, Anxiety, Stress Scale

(Lovibond & Lovibond, 1995).

The Pubertal Development Scale (five items) was used to assess pubertal

growth. Boys were asked about the development of their body hair, facial hair,

voice change, skin change, and growth spurt. Girls were asked about the devel-

opment of body hair, skin change, menarche, breasts, and growth spurt. Respon-

dents were required to indicate growth development for each aspect on a 4-point

scale (had not

begun,

had barely begun, was definitely underway, or had ceased).

Higher scores indicate higher levels of pubertal developm ent. Good reliability and

validity data for the scale have been reported by Petersen et al. (1988).

The Depression, Anxiety, Stress Scale was used to assess negative affect.

Respondents are required to indicate the extent to which they experienced each

item over the past week by circling the number on a Likert-type scale ranging

from 0

(did not apply at all)

to 3

(applied to me very much or m ost of the time).

Higher scores indicate a greater degree of negative emotional symptoms. High

levels of reliability and validity for the instrument are reported by Lovibond and

Lovibond (1995).

Procedure


14/23


Results and Discussion

Seven standard multiple regression analyses (similar to those for Study 1) were

conducted separately for boys and girls using the same dependent variables. Includ-

ed in the independent variable list were the two additional variables, negative affect

and pubertal development. A summary of the multiple regression analyses is given

in Tables 3 and 4.

Overall, the amount of variance in body image and the body-change strategies

being explained in Study 2 were greater than in Study 1. Consistent with previous

research, which has been conducted primarily with females, the present study

TABLE 3

Summary of Regression Analyses for Boys, Study 2

Dependent

variahle

Satisfaction

Importance

Decrease weight

Increase weight

Increase muscles

Binge eating

Food supplements

F

3.13*** (15,

3.13***

(15,

7.41*** (16,

6.31*** (16,

8.19***

(16,

3.01***

(16,

6.67***

(16,

183)

183)

182)

182)

182)

182)

182)

.20

.20

.40

.36

.42

.21

.37

LInique predictor

BM I

Importance

Feedback-father

Negative affect

Satisfaction

Pressure-increase muscles

Pubertal development

Importance



Satisfaction

Importance


friend**


Negative affect

Importance

Feedback father


Negative affect


Media-increase muscles

Negative affect

Satisfaction

Feedback-father



P

20**

.16*

- .25**

.19*

.16*

_,47***

.17*

.25***

- .52***

.28**

- .15*

.15*

.18*

_ 4 1 * * *

- .14*

24***

- . 2 1 * *

- .27**

- .15*

-.17*

.21*

-.19*

- .15*

- .28**

- .19**

.18**


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McCabe Ricciardelli 19

TABLE 4

Summary of Regression Analyses for Girls, Study 2

Dependent

variable

Satisfaction

Importance

Decrease weight

Increase weight

Increase muscles

Binge eating

Food supplements

4.99*** 15, 251)

4.53*** 15, 251)

8.12*** 16, 250)

3.08**

16,

250)

5.69*** 16, 250)

4.76*** 16,

250)

6.86*** 16, 250)

^

.23

.21

.34

.16

.27

.23

.31

Unique predictor

BMI

Importance

Feedback-father


Negative affect

Satisfaction

Feedback-mother


Satisfaction

Importance


Media-decrease weight

Feedback-mother

Feedback-best male friend


friend



Feedback-mother

Feedback-father



friend


Age

Satisfaction

Feedback-mother



P

.15*

- . 1 9 * *

- . 1 8 * *

.13*

.21**

- . 1 9 * *

.14*

- . 3 0 * * *

- . 2 8 * * *

.17**

- . 2 5 * * *

- . 2 0 * *

.20**

- . 2 1 * *

.18*

_ .49***

.16*

.21**

- . 17*

.19**

- . 2 6 * * *

- . 27**

.14*

- . 1 3 *

.15*

- . 17*

- . 1 8 * *

Note. BMI = body mass index.

*p


16/23


Pubertal development was found to be a unique predictor of strategies to

increase muscle tone for girls. For boys, pubertal development was a unique pre-

dictor of body-im age im portance and use of food supplem ents. These results sug-

gest (a) that puberty on its own does not predict body image and body-change

strategies but (b) that puberty predicts the use of food supplements that may then

be used by adolescent b oys and girls who are out of phase w ith their peers in their

pubertal development. This proposal needs further examination, to determine the

exact nature of food supplements being used by adolescents who are at different

stages of pubertal development.

On the whole, the other results for the boys from Study 2 were consistent

with those from Study 1. The fmdings showed that both father and m other played

an important role in transmitting sociocultural messages that affected boys'

weight-loss and weight-gain strategies, with father playing a somewhat more

important role, and m other a less important role, than in Study 1. Peers w ere not

seen to play a strong role in shaping body image or body-change strategies for

adolescent boys or girls, although female friends did have some impact on

increasing weight for boys and increasing muscle tone for girls, and best male

friend played a role in the use of food supplements and binge eating for girls.

Although only a limited amount of variance was explained, fathers appear to be

more influential than either mothers or peers in determining strategies to increase

muscle tone among boys. This suggests that boys are modeling on the behavior

of their fathers. One would expect that fathers would play a more significant role

than mothers in increasing muscle tone, and the present fmdings are consistent

with these expectations. Not surprisingly, a broader range of sociocultural pres-

sures affected body-change strategies for girls.

For boys, the only findings in Study 2 that completely differed from those in

Study 1 were for binge eating. In Study 1, body -image importance w as the sole

unique predictor of binge eating, but in Study 2 binge eating was predicted by

negative affect and pressure from the media to gain weight and increase muscle

tone. However, only a small amount of variance was explained in both studies.

The sociocultural predictors of binge eating were also different between Study 1

and 2. Whereas sociocultural influences to increase weight were the only unique

predictor in Study 1, feedback from mother, father, best male friend, and best

female friend, as well as sociocultural pressures to increase m uscle uniquely pre-

dicted binge eating in Study 2. The sociocultural predictors of extreme forms of

eating behaviors clearly require more investigation, focusing primarily on those

individuals who adopt these types of behaviors.

GENERAL DISCUSSION


17/23

McC abe & Ricciardelli 21

influence of these variables on body image and body-change strategies was fur-

ther evaluated in Study 2, as well as the impact of puberty and negative affect.

Importance of body image consistently predicted satisfaction with body

image, and satisfaction with body image predicted its importance. BMI also

appeared to play some role in body satisfaction. This finding was present for both

boys and girls in both studies and is consistent with past research findings. BMI

predicted weight loss for boys in Study 1, but not in either study for girls, an

observation that would suggest that boys who are overweight may engage in

weight-loss strategies, but the weight-loss strategies adopted by girls are not

dependent on weight. For

boys,

the cultural m essage is to obtain a mu scular bu ild,

and so only boys with a greater BMI may engage in weight-loss strategies.

Feedback from both mothers and fathers influenced adolescents' satisfaction

with their bodies. Surprisingly, they did not predict w eight loss among either girls

or boys, but they may have had an indirect effect on weight loss through their

infiuence on body satisfaction. However, parents' influence explained only a

small amount of the variance, and the results were inconsistent across the two

studies and so need to be explored further. Specific feedback from both mothers

and fathers seemed to more consistently affect extreme body-change strategies

such as use of food supplements and binge eating. This finding suggests that if

adolescent boys and girls detect feedback from their parents about their body and

shape, they might adopt these extreme strategies to alter their bodies. This is the

first series of studies to investigate parental influences on this broad range of

body-change strategies, so these findings need to be further investigated.

Parents were more important sociocultural transmitters of messages for both

adolescent boys and girls than were peers or the media. However, both male and

female friends played a role in predicting body-change strategies for adolescent

girls and, to a lesser extent, for adolescent boys. This role was greater for female

friends than it was for male friends. Con sistent with the find ings with parents, the

feedback primarily affected either extreme body-change strategies (e.g., binge

eating, use of food supplements) or strategies that moved the adolescent away

from the sociocultural ideal (e.g., feedback from male and female friends influ-

encing strategies to increase weight in adolescent girls). These results are con-

sistent with past studies on adolescent girls (e.g., Levine et al., 1994; Stormer &

Thompson, 1996). They indicate that both male and female friends influence

body-change strategies among adolescent girls but are less likely to affect body-

change strategies among adolescent bo ys. These findings suggest either that ado-

lescent boys are not heeding messages from their peers or that they are failing to


18/23


These broader sociocultural pressures to change weight influenced most of the

body-change strategies for adolescent boys and girls, and the nature of the per-

ceived pressures was largely consistent with the type of strategy that the adoles-

cent adopted.

The results of this study are quite complex in relation to the role of parents

and peers in shaping body image and body-change strategies among adolescent

boys and g irls. It appears that there is a significant amou nt of overlap among the

different groups in the nature of the messages provided to adolescents about

which bo dy-chan ge strategies to use. W hen the effect of these perceived messages

infiuenced a body-change strategy, it had an impact on the type of strategy that

the adolescent adopted. The results of this study raise questions about the most

valid m ethod to use to determine the nature and imp act of feedback and perceived

pressure from parents and peers on body image and body-change strategies. Fur-

ther research is necessary to determine whether it is best to represent the feed-

back from each individual or if it is best to assess the combined impact of these

individuals in relation to a particular strategy (e.g., for the adolescent to lose

weight, increase weight, or increase muscle tone).

Media messages had little impact on the prediction of body image or body-

change strategies adopted by adolescent boys, with media influencing strategies

only to decrease w eight and to increase weight in Study 1 and to use food su p-

plements and to engage in binge eating in Study 2. Either adolescent boys do not

perceive that the media are addressing messages regarding their body image to

them, or the me ssages are not strong or coherent enough to have an effect on bod y

image or the adoption of behaviors to move adolescent boys closer to the cultur-

al ideal. Alternatively, the messages m ay not have an impact becau se boys cho ose

not to respond to them. More research is needed to determine which of these

explanations best represents the findings in these studies. With other sociocultural

variables in the regression equation, media was not a major predictor of body

image and body-change strategies for adolescent girls, with the only consistent

finding related to media being its influence on decreasing weight. Although these

findings are at variance with past studies, they may be due to the inclusion of a

range of other factors in the regression equations, which may have explained the

variance that has previously been attributed to the influences of the media.

In addition to the sociocultural infiuences, BM I, and ag e, in Study 2 w e also

examined the impact of pubertal development and negative affect. The unique

contribution of pubertal development in comparison with the sociocultural vari-

ables was minimal, although negative affect appeared to have some impact, par-

ticularly among adolescent boys. Pubertal development may exert an influence

on body image and body-change strategies in a less direct way, and its influence


19/23

McCabe & Ricciardelli 23

direct impact. For fuller exploratioti of the nature of these influences, researchers

should use longitudinal studies to track the development of puberty, negative

affect, and the sociocultural variables in relation to body imag e and body-ch ange

strategies.

In this study we investigated aspects of body image and body-change strate-

gies that have not been explored in previous studies. Clearly, these fmdings need

to be examined further. The fmdings are limited by the narrow cultural back-

ground of the adolescents, and it is important to determine whether these results

apply to adolescents from other cultural backgrounds. It is also important to

extend the age range of respondents and to determine the nature of the sociocul-

tural predictors among both preadolescent and older adolescent respondents.

Finally, the amounts of variance explained by these sociocultural, biological,

and emotional variables were quite different (ranging from 9% to

46%).

For areas

in which the variance was small, it is important to investigate other elements that

contribute to body image and body-change strategies among adolescent boys and

girls. Although the present studies have provided some understanding of these

variables as they relate to body image and weight loss among adolescent girls

(e.g., ineffectiveness, self-esteem), researchers need to determine whether these

same variables are relevant for boys and whether they predict weight gain and

increased muscle tone. It is also important to note that the sociocultural influ-

ences were self-reported, and so different fmdings may be obtained if other mea-

sures of sociocultural influences are used. The fmdings from the present studies

have implications for intervention strategies to address problem areas not only for

weight loss but also with adolescents engaging in health-damaging behaviors

designed to gain weight or to increase muscle size and strength.

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Received December 19, 2000

Accepted July 27, 2001


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McCabe, M. & Ricciardelli, L. (2003).

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