Full Terms & Conditions of access and use can be found athttps://www.tandfonline.com/action/journalInformation?journalCode=lfri20

Food Reviews International

ISSN: 8755-9129 (Print) 1525-6103 (Online) Journal homepage: https://www.tandfonline.com/loi/lfri20

Acrylamide Formation and Different MitigationStrategies during Food Processing – A Review

Abid Aslam Maan, Muhammad Adeel Anjum, Muhammad Kashif Iqbal Khan,Akmal Nazir, Farhan Saeed, Muhammad Afzaal & Rana Muhammad Aadil

To cite this article: Abid Aslam Maan, Muhammad Adeel Anjum, Muhammad Kashif Iqbal Khan,Akmal Nazir, Farhan Saeed, Muhammad Afzaal & Rana Muhammad Aadil (2020): AcrylamideFormation and Different Mitigation Strategies during Food Processing – A Review, Food ReviewsInternational, DOI: 10.1080/87559129.2020.1719505

To link to this article: https://doi.org/10.1080/87559129.2020.1719505

Published online: 19 Feb 2020.

Submit your article to this journal

Article views: 112

View related articles

View Crossmark data

Acrylamide Formation and Different Mitigation Strategiesduring Food Processing – A ReviewAbid Aslam Maana,b, Muhammad Adeel Anjuma, Muhammad Kashif Iqbal Khana,b,Akmal Nazirc, Farhan Saeed d, Muhammad Afzaald, and Rana Muhammad Aadila

aNational Institute of Food Science and Technology, University of Agriculture Faisalabad, Faisalabad, Pakistan;bDepartment of Food Engineering, University of Agriculture Faisalabad, Faisalabad, Pakistan; cDepartment ofFood Science, College of Food and Agriculture, United Arab Emirates University, Al Ain, United Arab Emirates;dInstitute of Home and Food Sciences, Government College University Faisalabad, Faisalabad, Pakistan

ABSTRACTThermal treatment can initiate the production of some undesirablecompounds in foods during processing. Acrylamide is one amongsuch compounds that is produced (in starch-rich foods) as a result ofMaillard reaction between reducing sugars and free amino acids.Acrylamide has gained much attention owing to its wide occurrence,dietary exposure, and toxicity. Its formation mechanism and mitiga-tion has been an area of interest for numerous researchers since itsdiscovery in foods. Some reviews have already been published onacrylamide where its formation and mitigation has been discussedwith reference to some specific group of foods and/or some specificmitigation technique. In others, the mitigation section does not coverall the aspects of acrylamide attenuation reported in the literature.The present paper provides the updated and comprehensive infor-mation on formation, occurrence, dietary exposure, toxicity, andmitigation of acrylamide in foods during processing.

KEYWORDSMaillard reaction;acrylamide; toxicity;mitigation

Introduction

Food commodities may undergo various heat treatments during processing (such asroasting, frying, baking, and pasteurization) with prime objectives of shelf-stability anddesired sensory profile. These thermal treatments can initiate some reactions in foods(including Maillard reaction, lipid oxidation, and caramelization) that can produce variouscompounds, which can have both desirable (antimicrobial, antioxidant, and antiallergenic)and undesirable (cytotoxicity, carcinogenicity, and mutagenic responses) effects.[1,2]

Acrylamide is one among such compounds, which has gained much interest because ofits toxicity and wide occurrence in processed foods.[3]

Acrylamide (C3H5NO; prop-2-enamide) is a water-soluble, colorless, and odorless com-pound, and is vulnerable to bases, acids, oxidizing agents, and iron salts.[4] Thermally, acryla-mide decomposes to CO2, CO, and nitrogen oxides as well as ammonia.[5] Being monomer, it isemployed in organic synthesis, whereas the industrial processes such as paper making, cos-metics, textiles, and the treatment of waste water also find its applications.[4,6]

Acrylamide was discovered in foods (processed at temperatures greater than 120°C) bySwedish National Food Authority and Stockholm University in 2002.[7] The discovery of

CONTACT Muhammad Kashif Iqbal Khan Kashif.khan@uaf.edu.pk National Institute of Food Science andTechnology, University of Agriculture Faisalabad, Faisalabad, Pakistan

FOOD REVIEWS INTERNATIONALhttps://doi.org/10.1080/87559129.2020.1719505

© 2020 Taylor & Francis

acrylamide in foods urged the researchers to investigate various factors involved inacrylamide formation during processing. Consequently, numerous formation mechanismswere elucidated along with various mitigation strategies. Some reviews have already beenpublished where acrylamide formation and mitigation has either been discussed withreference to some specific group of foods[8] and mitigation technique[9] or the mitigationsection does not cover all aspects of acrylamide extenuation reported in literature.[3,10] Thecurrent work was aimed to present updated and comprehensive information on acryla-mide formation, occurrence, exposure, associated risks, and mitigation in foods duringprocessing.

Formation of acrylamide

Initially, the hypotheses discussed on formation mechanisms of acrylamide were focusedon vegetable oils and lipids as the fried and baked starch-rich foods were found to be themain sources of acrylamide in foods. The main precursors reported for acrylamideformation included 3-aminopropionamide, decarboxylated Schiff base[11], decarboxylatedAmadori product[12], acrylic acid,[13] and acrolein.[14] According to recent studies, twopathways are most accepted; Maillard reaction and acrolein pathway[15] (Fig. 1). Maillardreaction involves the reaction between free amino acids such as asparagine and reducingsugars. Chemical phenomena involved in acrylamide formation prefer short chain sugarsthat form cyclic hemiacetal and exposed to nucleophilic attack by alpha-amino acids.A Schiff base is formed by removal of water from sugar–protein conjugate, which furtherdecarboxylates through the formation of oxazolidine-5-one. The decarboxylated productdecomposes to acrylamide through the elimination of imine or after hydrolyzation to form3-APA or 3-oxopropanamide. It has been found through continuous research that carbo-nyl compounds (2-deoxyglucose, 2,3-butanedione, octanal, and decanal) can produceresults similar to reducing sugars.[10,16,17]

Acrolein, another precursor of acrylamide formation, is produced in oils when heatedabove their smoke point.[16] At this temperature, glycerol undergoes degradation resultingin the formation of acrolein. Acrolein further oxidizes to acrylic acid and producesacrylamide in the presence of asparagine where acrylic acid provides the carbon sourceand asparagine provides the amino group. Further, the peroxy radicals can initiate thepolymerization of acrylamide in the presence of oxygen.[14,18]

Occurrence, dietary exposure, and toxicity

Occurrence of acrylamide has been reported in a variety of foods including potato crisps,bread, biscuits, breakfast cereals, coffee, cereal-based (and jarred) baby foods, hazelnuts,almonds, olives, raw and processed fruits and vegetables, meat, fish, popcorn, cocoaproducts, green tea, oilseeds, condiments, sauces, alcoholic beverages as well as home-made potato products.[3,19,20] Recently, a study was conducted by Mesias et al.[21] onrenowned food service establishments (trademark food restaurants) in Spain. The resultsindicated that mean acrylamide contents were in range with the EFSA (European FoodSafety Authority) standards. However, 13.5% samples were found to breach the bench-mark level (500 µg/kg) established by the European Commission for ready-to-eat Frenchfries (EU Regulation 2158/2017).[21] Acrylamide contents in different brands of the same

2 A. A. MAAN ET AL.

product can vary due to the difference in concentration of acrylamide precursors (in rawmaterials), composition, process conditions, duration, and conditions of storage.[3,22]

These factors, along with different eating habits, have resulted in variable dietary expo-sures of acrylamide among populations of different regions and age groups. Some selectedstudies are summarized in the following patagraphs.

Tawila et al.[23] reported an average daily intake of 0.51 µg/kg body weight/day in school-going children (consuming cafeteria foods) with 95th percentile value of about 1.71 µg/kg.A decrease in exposure was observed with an increase in the age of children. For primaryschool children, the exposure value was 0.65 µg/kg body weight/day which decreased to 0.37µg/kg body weight for secondary school children. Wyka et al.[24] estimated the dietaryexposure of acrylamide in teenagers and reported different values for males and females.The dietary intake values were 1.04 and 1.18 µg/kg body weight/day with 95th percentile for

Figure 1. Mechanism of formation of acrylamide by acrolein pathway and Maillard reaction. Adapted(with permission) from Liu et al. [16]

FOOD REVIEWS INTERNATIONAL 3

females and males, respectively. Zając et al.[25] estimated the exposure to different age groupsand observed a decrease in exposure with age from 1.51 µg/kg body weight/day for theyoungest group (6–12 years) to 0.67 µg/kg body weight/day for the oldest group (42–60years). The exposure level for adults was found to be 0.85 µg/kg body weight/day with 95thpercentile value of 1.70 µg/kg body weight/day. A study conducted to assess the acrylamideexposure to infants (aged 6–12months) reported an average level from 2.10 to 4.32 µg/kg bodyweight/day. The maximum exposure, representing an isolated worse case, was reported to be7.47–12.35 µg/kg body weight/day.[26] Exposure assessment in adolescents (aged 10–17 years)has been reported to be 0.29and 0.17 µg/kg body weight/day on the basis of food diary andfood frequency questionnaire.[27] Sirot et al.[28] assessed the acrylamide exposure to adults andchildren among the French population and reported values of 0.43 and 0.69 µg/kg bodyweight/day, respectively. A study conducted on the dietary exposure of acrylamide to theChinese population revealed an exposure level of 0.29 µg/kg body weight/day with 95thpercentile value of 0.49 µg/kg body weight/day.[29] In general, potato and cereal-basedproducts are reported to be the major contributors to the exposure of acrylamide and accountfor about one-third of total acrylamide intake.[30]

Acrylamide has been classified as “probable carcinogen” by the International Agency forResearch on Cancer.[31] When ingested, it is distributed to various body tissues (heart,kidneys, brain, liver, and breast) and can affect metabolism, reproduction, normal celldivision, and dysfunction during developmental phases.[32] During metabolism, the bodyconverts it into glycidamide that can act as a potent DNA-damaging agent.[33,34]

Consumption of acrylamide at low dose for longer times can also affect the neurotransmissionand axonal efficiency.[35] Alghoraishi et al.[36] have reported that acrylamide can significantlyreduce the progressive and total sperm motility in mice. The California Office ofEnvironmental Health Hazard Assessment has declared acrylamide as a male developmentaltoxin.[37] Some of the females (mouse) treated with acrylamide presented an increased level ofROS (reactive oxygen species) causing reduction in DNA as well as histone methylation levelswhich consequently resulted in decreased oocyte fertility and quality.[38]

A joint committee of FAO (Food and Agriculture Organization), WHO (World HealthOrganization), and EFSA presented their guidance on the risk of exposure of differentcompounds that were thought to be carcinogenic or genotoxic.[39,40] The previous recom-mendation was to present the exposure as ALARA (as low as reasonably achievable). But itwas considered of limited use because there were not any carcinogenic potency or humanexposure included. Therefore, the risk managers were recommended to use MOE (marginof exposure) approach for their priority setting as it was more informative than ALARA.The CONTAM panel (Panel on Contaminants in the Food Chain) of EFSA performed therisk characterization of acrylamide and established a BMDL10 (benchmark dose lowerconfidence limit) value of 0.43 mg/kg body weight/day for peripheral neuropathy (in rats)and 0.17 mg/kg body weight/day for neoplastic effects (in mice). Nonneoplastic effectswere assessed using the MOE approach for neurotoxicity and it was concluded that MOEmight be of concern for toddlers and other children. Acrylamide and its metabolitesshowed a positive response in a variety of genotoxic tests indicating its concern withgenotoxicity. The carcinogenic processes which are facilitated by DNA reactive mode ofaction may not have any threshold value relative to dose–response relation. Therefore, thepanel considered it inappropriate to establish a tolerable daily intake.[41,42]

4 A. A. MAAN ET AL.

Increased awareness about the occurrence and toxicity of acrylamide has resulted indemand for legislation to ensure its information on food labels in some countries. Somebenchmark levels and mitigation procedures were established and put into force(April 2018) under EU regulation No. 2017/2158 for the reduction of acrylamide infoodstuff.[43] In 2005 in California, a lawsuit was filed against some companies andrestaurants for failing to fulfill the requirements (regarding acrylamide) of Safe DrinkingWater and Toxic Enforcement Act of 1986 (proposition 65). This proposition regulatesthe chemicals causing carcinogenic and reproductive harms forcing the manufacturers tolabel their products with such chemicals or otherwise warn the consumers. As a part ofsettlement of lawsuit, acrylamide warning labels/notices are now being posted bya number of restaurant chains selling foods containing acrylamide to reduce its consump-tion and promote better public health.[37,44,45]

Mitigation approaches

Various approaches have been reported in literature for reducing acrylamide formationduring food processing. Summary of the effects of these approaches on acrylamidereduction in various foods has been presented in Tables 1–5. Each of these approachesis suitable only for some specific group of foods as described in the following sections.

Processing conditions

Thermal processing (baking, frying, roasting, etc.) is the most common type of foodprocessing. Since acrylamide formation is initiated (from its precursors) by heat; therefore,several researchers have evaluated the effect of thermal processing variables (i.e. proces-sing temperature and time) in relation to acrylamide formation. Frying, broasting, andallied processing techniques are among common cooking methods in restaurants and athome, which result in acrylamide production in foodstuff in response to the availability ofprecursors.[85–87] Williams[88] found that time–temperature combination during fryingwas a decisive factor (among others such as type of frying oil, potato cultivar, soaking)affecting acrylamide formation in potato fries. Daniali et al.[46] investigated the acrylamideformation in frying oils using palm olein and soybean oils at different times and tem-peratures. They reported a direct correlation between time, temperature, and amount ofacrylamide formation. The maximum amount of acrylamide was observed when both oilswere heated at 200°C for 7.5 min, and the minimum amount was observed at 160°C for1.5 min. Matthäus et al.[89] reported that time duration is a key factor especially at fryingtemperatures above 175°C. They reported a radical increase in acrylamide concentration at180–190°C compared to lower temperatures (150°C and 175°C). Increase in the concen-tration of acrylamide with respect to time followed linear function; however, for fryingtemperature, a nonlinear relation was observed. Van Der Fels-Klerx et al.[90] evaluated theeffect of baking time and temperature on acrylamide contents in biscuits at 180°C, 190°C,and 200°C. The acrylamide contents increased with increasing temperature with thehighest concentration observed at 200°C. At each temperature, the acrylamide concentra-tion increased with baking time; whereas at 200°C, a linear relationship was observedbetween baking time and acrylamide concentration. Claus et al.[47] studied the effect ofbaking temperature on acrylamide contents and sensory properties of bread. Nearly, same

FOOD REVIEWS INTERNATIONAL 5

results were obtained regarding color, odor, and flavor of the bread samples baked at 240°C for 50 min and 200°C for 70 min. However, higher acrylamide concentration was seenin the samples baked at higher temperature (124.1 µg/kg) compared to lower temperature(92.4 µg/kg). Mustafa et al.[91] have also reported a direct relation between the concentra-tion of acrylamide and baking parameters (temperature and time). Mizukami et al.[48]

investigated different roasting conditions for green tea to reduce the acrylamide

Table 1. Effects of various processing conditions and techniques on acrylamide reduction in differentfoods.Processing conditions Food product Acrylamide reduction (%) References

Heating at 160°C for 1.5 min Palm olein and soybean oil atconstant amount of asparagine

98.32% and 97.01%,respectively

[46]

Baking at 200°C for 70 min Bread 25.54% [47]Roasting at 160°C for 30 min compared to180°C for 15 min

Green tea 50% [48]

Frying at 150°C, 170°C, and 190°C untilmoisture contents of 40 g/100g

Potato stripsimmersed in water for 120 min

33%, 21%, and 27%,respectively

[49]

Frying at 150°C, 170°C, and 190°C untilmoisture contents of 40 g/100g

Potato slices immersed in citricacid (10 g/L)

53%(average of all threetemperatures)

Frying at 150°C until moisture contents of1.7 g/100g

Potato slices immersed in citricacid (10 and 20 g/L)

70% [50]

Baking for 15 min at 180°C compared to190°C

Biscuits 50% [51]

Roasting at 236°C for 10 min compared to 4min

Coffee beans 38.66% [52]

Roasting for 15 min at 145°C compared to165°C

Almonds 78.22% [53]

Roasting for 2.5 min at 110°C compared to150°C

Cocoa beans 84.61% [54]

Roasting at 130°C for 15 min compared to20 min

Cocoa beans 55.17%

Processing techniquesMicrowave precooking followed by Frying at190°C and 850 W for 30 s

Potato strips 60% [55]

Vacuum roasting at 200°C and 0.15 kPa Coffee beans 50% [56]Vacuum combined baking at 6.67 Pa, 60 °Cfor 5–15 min

Biscuits and Potato chips 43% and 18%, respectively [57]

Vacuum frying at 10 Torr and 125°C Potato chips 63% [58]Ultrasound pretreatment (35 kHz and 92.5W/kg at 42°C) followed by Frying at 171°C

Potatoes 90% [59]

Microwave frying at 181°C for 1.5 min Chicken coated with rice flour 35% [60]Air frying (at 180°C) Potatoes 90% [61]

Table 2. Effect of additives on acrylamide reduction in various foods.Type of additive Food product Acrylamide reduction (%) References

Lime (2 g/100 g) Tortilla chips 52% [62]Cysteine and glycine (0.36 and 0.2 g/100g) Biscuits 97.8% [63]Vanadyl sulphate pretreatment (0.1 M for 60 min) Frech fries and chips 89.3% [64]Sodium bisulphite (25 mM) Black ripe olives 100% [65]Nicotinic acid, citric acid and glycine (1% each) andNaCl (2%)

Fried potatoes 90% [61]

Acetic acid soaking (at 20°C for 60 min) Potato crisps 90% [66]L-Asparaginase (8000 U/L from Bacillus subtilis B11-06)

Potato slices 82% [67]

L-Asparaginase (300 U/mL from Fusarium culmorumASP-86)

Potato chips and sweetbread

86% [68]

L-Asparaginase (from Aspergillus oryzae CCT 3940) French fries 72% [69]

6 A. A. MAAN ET AL.

concentration without doing any compromise over the quality of the product. The samplewas subjected to roasting process at 180°C for 15 min and at 160°C for 30 min to producethe desired Houjicha flavor. In the green tea infusions, 4.0 and 2.0 µg/L of acrylamide weredetected by the roasting process at 180°C for 15 min and 160°C for 30 min, respectively.Degradation of catechins was also inhibited at 160°C compared to 180°C. Summa et al.[52]

subjected different coffee samples to a roasting temperature of 236°C for different timeperiods. A decreasing trend in acrylamide level was seen with increasing roasting time.Contrary to this, Lukac et al.[53] evaluated the acrylamide contents in almonds (roasted at145°C and 165°C) and reported an increase in acrylamide concentration with roastingtime. A similar trend has been reported by Farah et al.[54] for roasting of cocoa beans at130°C. The contrasting trend of acrylamide formation in coffee beans might be due to theuse of high roasting temperature (236°C).

Careful choice of processing variables can be used as an effective tool to reduce acrylamidein thermally processed foods. Changes in process variables might result in slight changes insensory characteristics of the product. However, through careful selection of time and

Table 3. Effect of blanching on acrylamide reduction in various foods.

Blanching conditions Food productAcrylamide

reduction (%) References

Blanching for 3 min at 80°C Potatoes 73% [70]Blanching for 10 min at 70°C Potato crisps 70% [71]Water blanching and soaking (in 0.5% sodium acid pyrophosphate thenstrip soaking in 0.4% calcium chloride solution)

Sweet potatoFrench fries

92.16% [72]

Blanching (with 10 U/mL of L-asparaginase at 80°C for only 4 min) French fries 80.5% [73]Blanching at 68.7–75°C for 8.8–9.7 min Potato chips 61.3% [74]

Table 4. Effect of fermentation on acrylamide reduction in various foods.Type of fermentation Food product Acrylamide reduction (%) References

Submerged fermentation (SMF) and Solid-statefermentation (SSF)

Biscuits with Flaxseeds(through SMF) and lupine(through SSF)

78% and 85%, respectively [75]

Fermented Helianthus tuberosus L. Tuber Wheat bread 54% [76]Fermentation with Baker’s yeast (Saccharomycescerevisiae, 1–2% w/v)

Instant coffee 70% [77]

Lactic acid bacterial fermentation withAspergillus niger glucoamylase

Mixed rye bread 59.4% (in 500 g loaf) and40% (in 1000 g loaf)

[78]

Fermentation with Pediococcus acidilactici,Lactobacillus brevis, Lactobacillus plantarum,and Pediococcus pentoseus

Bread 84.2%, 55.6%, 49.2%, and39.2%, respectively

[79]

Table 5. Effect of plant extracts on acrylamide reduction in various foods.

Type of extract Food productAcrylamide

reduction (%) Reference

Proanthocyanidins extracted from sorghum, cranberry, andgrape seeds (0.01–1 mg/mL for 15 min)

Fried potato crisps 44.2% [80]

Green tea extract (3%) Chicken drumsticks andchicken wings

43% and 34%,respectively

[81]

Aqueous extracts from green tea, cinnamon, and oregano (1g/L for 1 min)

Fried potatoes 62%, 39% and 17%,respectively

[82]

Rosemary extract (50 mg/kg) Fried potatoes 38% [83]Bamboo leaves antioxidant (0.2 g/kg) and tea polyphenols(0.1 g/kg)

Cookies 63.9% and 43%,respectively

[84]

FOOD REVIEWS INTERNATIONAL 7

temperature, one can reduce acrylamide content in the product without negotiating onquality.[92] Process optimization while addressing both, acrylamide contents and the sensorialcharacteristics of the product, should be a prerequisite for adopting such approaches.

Processing techniques

Various integrated processing methods have been reported to reduce acrylamide formation inproducts. Erdoǧdu et al.[55] studied the impact of microwave precooking with subsequent fryingof French fries at 190°C, 170°C, and 150°C. Different microwave treatments used were 10, 20,and 30 s at 840Wof power. Anoticeable amount of reduction in acrylamidewas observed on thesurface ofmicrowave-treated samples, whereas in the inner core, aminute increase was detected.A 50% decrease in acrylamide formation has been reported by Anese et al.[56] in coffee beansprocessed through roasting with integrated vacuum treatment compared to conventional roast-ing without affecting the color and other sensory properties. Anese et al.[57] have reporteda decrease of 43% (in biscuits) and 18% (in potato chips) by combining the vacuumwith bakingand frying, respectively. Similar results for acrylamide reduction through vacuum-combinedbaking have also been reported by Palazoğlu et al.,[93] and Yıldız et al.[94] Granda et al.[58]

experimented using vacuum frying of potatoes and reported a considerable decrease (up to 94%)in acrylamide contents. Belkova et al.[95] have also reported a noticeable decrease in acrylamideand other undesirable by-products of Maillard reaction in potato crisps through vacuumcombined frying.

Apart from integrated processing techniques, the use of novel processing methods(either alone or as a pretreatment) has been reported to reduce acrylamide contents ina variety of foods. In a study conducted by Antunes-Rohling et al.,[59] high-intensityultrasounds were applied on potatoes immersed in water as a pretreatment to mitigate theacrylamide level. They reported a decrease of 90% in acrylamide contents in potatoes friedafter ultrasonic treatment and attributed this reduction to decreased reducing sugarcontents. Barutcu et al.[60] evaluated the effect of microwave frying on acrylamide contentsin coating materials comprising different types of flours. Microwave frying produced34.5% less acrylamide compared to conventional frying in rice-based coating material.Sansano et al.[61] compared the effect of air frying and deep oil frying on acrylamideformation and reported a decrease of 90% through air frying.

Mitigation through integrated approaches or pre- and posttreatments results in increasedprocessing steps and processing timewith subsequent increase in processing cost. This can affectthe cost of the product and itsmarketing. Therefore, cost evaluation of the process/product needsto be carefully assessed while adopting such strategies on a commercial scale.

Additives

Various additives (added either during processing or as a pretreatment agent) have beenreported as effective against acrylamide formation in model as well as real food systems.Lime is an important additive used in the nixtamalization process where corn flour is usedfor tortilla chips production. A study by Salazar et al.[62] reported a decrease of 36–52% inacrylamide owing to lime content (1.5–2 g/100 g). The study further indicated that limeconcentration can play a vital role in mitigating acrylamide during nixtamalizationthrough inhibition of Schiff Base. Zou et al.[63] investigated the effect of cysteine alone

8 A. A. MAAN ET AL.

and in combination with glycine in asparagine/glucose and biscuit models. A significantdecrease (93.2–97.8%) in acrylamide contents was observed using cysteine (0.36 g/100 g)and glycine (0.2 g/100 g). It was reported that cysteine and asparagine reduce acrylamideby competing with asparagine or through Michael adduction.

The therapeutic effect of inorganic vanadium against various diseases is welldocumented.[96,97] Kalita and Jayanty[64] pretreated the potato strips with various concentrationsof vanadyl sulfate solutions. The pretreated strips were subjected to the preparation of Frenchfries and chips. Acrylamide contents were decreased (up to 90%) with increasing the concentra-tion of vanadyl sulfate. It was postulated that VO2+ binds to asparagine and hinders its roleacrylamide formation. Yuan et al.[98] explored the impact of some additives including allicin,cysteine, NaHSO3, NaCl, and ascorbic acid on acrylamide reduction during microwave heating.Each of the foresaid additives proved good, but cysteine and NaHSO3 performed excellently.NaHSO3 was reported to play its role by preventing the formation of Schiff base through itsreaction with the carbonyl group of reducing sugars. In another study related to ripe black olive,NaHSO3 incorporation did not affect the acrylamide production at 1.5 mM but 100% inhibitionat 25mMconcentration was reported.[65] Sansano et al.[61] pretreated the potatoes with 1% citricacid, glycine, nicotinic acid, and 2%NaCl. They reported a decrease of acrylamide up to 80–90%.Similar reduction (around 90%) has also been reported by pre-treatments in acidic (citric andacetic) solutions.[66] Organic acids reduce acrylamide through protonation of asparagine aminogroups at low pH. The same researchers also evaluated the effect of post-frying drying treatment(throughdrying of potatoes immediately after frying in hot air oven) and reported 80% reductionof acrylamide.

Since L-asparagine is considered to be one of the major precursors of acrylamide,various studies have evaluated the effect of enzyme L-asparaginase as a potential inreducing acrylamide formation. Studies have shown that L-asparaginase catalyzes thehydrolysis of L-aspargine into ammonia and aspartic acid.[73,99] The enzymeL-asparaginase can be obtained from various sources including plants, animals, andmicroorganisms. Microbial source is considered as the most suitable option for itsapplications in the food and medical industries.[100] In a study by Jia et al., [67] potatoslices were treated with L-asparginase from Bacillus subtilis at a concentration of 8000 U/Lto immerse potato slices before frying and acrylamide contents were reduced by 82%. Ina recent study, Meghavarnam and Janakiraman[68] performed a series of experiments,where 50, 100, 200, and 300 U/mL concentration of L-asparaginase were incorporated indough and acrylamide risk was lessened up to 42%, 66%, 77%, and 86%, respectively. Diaset al. [69] removed 72% and 92% acrylamide using L-asparaginase obtained fromAspergillus oryzae (Strain# CCT 3940) and commercial enzyme, respectively.

Although a variety of additives have been investigated with proven effectiveness againstacrylamide formation,[101] their industrial applications will depend on the type of the product,their effectiveness against acrylamide formation without affecting the product quality and safety.

Blanching

Blanching is a preparatory procedure where a food sample (such as potato chips) is dippedin hot water for few minutes for a variety of reasons. It is basically done to obtain moreuniform color, less oil absorption, and a gelatinized layer of starch which greatly improvesthe texture of the product. The blanching of potatoes prior to frying has been found very

FOOD REVIEWS INTERNATIONAL 9

effective in minimizing acrylamide contents.[49] Blanching helps to extract sugars frompotatoes, thus reducing the amount of acrylamide precursors.[70]

Viklund et al.[70] determined the blanching impact on three potato clones (namelySaturna, Hulda, and SW 91102) and reported a decrease ranging between 51% and 73% inacrylamide production; possibly due to decline in the diffusion of precursors to the surface ofslices. Blanching temperature has been reported to be the key factor in acrylamide reductionas well. Mestdagh et al.[71] investigated the effect of blanching conditions (time and tem-perature combinations) on acrylamide formation in French fries and reported that blanchingfor a short time at high temperature proved to be more effective than blanching at lowtemperature and for a long time. Zuo et al.[73] studied the blanching of potatoes combinedwith treatment with a thermostable enzyme (L-asparaginase) in one step and reporteda significant decrease in acrylamide formation. While comparing with control treatment, Al-Bachir et al.[102] achieved 61% of acrylamide reduction in potato strips by blanching at 85 ±0.5°C for 5 min compared to treatment with gamma irradiations (20–54%). A decrease of78% was achieved with a combined treatment of blanching and gamma irradiations.

Blanching is a common unit operation during commercial processing of a variety of potatoproducts and therefore the acrylamide content of such products can be expected to be at lowerlevel. However, consumer practices at households can cause serious acrylamide threat especiallywhen one-stage processing is performed. Mesias et al.[103] conducted an observational study on73 Spanish houses to evaluate the effect of consumer practices on acrylamide formation duringthe preparation of French fries from fresh potatoes. Acrylamide contents were found above thebenchmark level of European Commission (500 µg/kg) for French fries in some 45% of theanalyzed samples,[43] whereas the contents exceeded the concentration of 2000 µg/kg in about 7%samples. For this category, the obtained average and median values were also found to be morethan the report of scientific opinionof EFSAon acrylamide showing that domestic preparation ofFrench fries is not well controlled and can result in increased exposure of population toacrylamide. Blanching seems to be the most simple and applicable treatment which can bepracticed at households to reduce acrylamide threat fromdomestically prepared potato products,if coordinated properly.

Fermentation

Fermentation is an important process in the preparation of leavened baked products fromwheat flour. Fermentation with yeast has been reported to reduce asparagine and subse-quently the acrylamide formation in bread. Wang et al.[104] have reported that about40–60% asparagine can be reduced with yeast fermentation while the contents of reducingsugars are increased. However, sourdough fermentation negatively affects the utilization ofasparagine by yeast and can result in increased amounts of acrylamide.[105] Acid fermen-tation in potatoes increases asparagine contents and reduces the contents of reducingsugars, thus resulting in decreased acrylamide contents.[106] The fermentation process,type of microorganisms and their interactions are important factors that affect the amountof acrylamide reduction. Bartkiene et al.[75] evaluated the acrylamide reduction in biscuits(supplemented with flaxseeds and lupine) through solid-state (SSF) and submerged (SMF)fermentation. For this purpose, different types of microorganisms (including Lactobacillussakei, Pediococcus pentosaceus, and Pediococcus acidilactici) were evaluated. The type offermentation process and microbial strain significantly influenced the acrylamide

10 A. A. MAAN ET AL.

formation. For instance, Pediococcus acidilactici was found to be more effective in redu-cing acrylamide contents in flaxseed, through SMF by 78% and lupine, through SSF by85%. Other reports of acrylamide reduction through fermentation have been published byAkıllıoglu and Gökmen[77] and Bartkiene et al.[107] for coffee and lupin-supplementedbread, respectively.

Plant extracts

Various plant extracts (rich in phenolics and antioxidants) have been investigated asinhibitors of acrylamide formation in model and food systems. However, contrastingresults of their effects on acrylamide inhibition have been reported. This might be dueto specific roles played by factors arising from different types of food ingredients.Vattem and Shetty[108] have proposed that acrylamide formation is non-oxidative innature and thus the presence of exogenous phenolics can increase the formation ofacrylamide. However, most of the studies on plant extracts have reported a significantdecrease of upto 60% in acrylamide from various plant extracts including green tea,bamboo, mint, berry, and pomegranate flower.[80,81,109,110] Their inhibitory role mainlydepends on the type of antioxidants in the extracts, their concentration and purity.[111]

Conclusion

Since the detection of acrylamide in foods, significant progress has been made in understandingits formation mechanism during processing, sources of occurrence in different foods as well astheir exposure assessments. Exposure varies with age-group and decreases with increasing age,where potato and cereal-based products are reported to be the major contributors to exposure.Continuous exposure for longer times can affect metabolism, reproduction, and normal celldivision. It can also lead to neurotoxicity and cancer. Reduction of acrylamide in different foodproducts through various approaches has been extensively explored. For this purpose, processvariables, novel and integrated processing techniques, use of additives, and different pre- andpost-processing treatments have been reported in several studies. However, approaches usefulfor one product might not be applicable to other products due to variable compositions anddifferent product technologies. Hence, there is a need to identify the most appropriate solutionfor respective products. Moreover, public awareness and sensitization about dangers of acryla-mide along with possible ways to reduce its formation needs to be increased.

ORCID

Farhan Saeed http://orcid.org/0000-0001-5340-4015

References

[1] Borrelli, R. C.; Fogliano, V. Bread Crust Melanoidins as Potential Prebiotic Ingredients. Mol.Nutr. Food Res. 2005, 49, 673–678. DOI: 10.1002/(ISSN)1613-4133.

[2] van Boekel, M.; Fogliano, V.; Pellegrini, N.; Stanton, C.; Scholz, G.; Lalljie, S.; Somoza, V.;Knorr, D.; Jasti, P. R.; Eisenbrand, G. A Review on the Beneficial Aspects of Food Processing.Mol. Nutr. Food Res. 2010, 54(9), 1215–1247. DOI: 10.1002/mnfr.200900608.

FOOD REVIEWS INTERNATIONAL 11

[3] Capuano, E.; Fogliano, V. Acrylamide and 5-Hydroxymethylfurfural (HMF): A Review onMetabolism, Toxicity, Occurrence in Food and Mitigation Strategies. LWT - Food Sci.Technol. 2011, 44(4), 793–810. DOI: 10.1016/j.lwt.2010.11.002.

[4] Tepe, Y.; Çebi, A. Acrylamide in Environmental Water: A Review on Sources, Exposure, andPublic Health Risks. Exposure Health 2019, 11(1), 3–12. DOI: 10.1007/s12403-017-0261-y.

[5] Kitahara, Y.; Okuyama, K.; Ozawa, K.; Suga, T.; Takahashi, S.; Fujii, T. ThermalDecomposition of Acrylamide from Polyacrylamide: Time-Resolved Pyrolysis withIon-Attachment Mass Spectrometry. J. Therm. Anal. Calorim. 2012, 110(1), 423–429. DOI:10.1007/s10973-012-2544-7.

[6] Liu, J.; Chen, F.; Man, Y.; Dong, J.; Hu, X. The Pathways for the Removal of Acrylamide inModel Systems Using Glycine Based on the Identification of Reaction Products. Food Chem.2011, 128(2), 442–449. DOI: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2011.03.051.

[7] De Vleeschouwer, K.; Van der Plancken, I.; Van Loey, A.; Hendrickx, M. E. The Effect ofHigh Pressure− High Temperature Processing Conditions on Acrylamide Formation andOther Maillard Reaction Compounds. J. Agric. Food Chem. 2010, 58(22), 11740–11748. DOI:10.1021/jf102697b.

[8] Keramat, J.; LeBail, A.; Prost, C.; Jafari, M. Acrylamide in Baking Products: A Review Article.Food Bioprocess. Technol. 2011, 4(4), 530–543. DOI: 10.1007/s11947-010-0495-1.

[9] Xu, F.; Oruna-Concha, M.-J.; Elmore, J. S. The Use of Asparaginase to Reduce Acrylamide Levelsin Cooked Food. Food Chem. 2016, 210, 163–171. DOI: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2016.04.105.

[10] Krishnakumar, T.; Visvanathan, R. Acrylamide in Food Products: A Review. J. Food Process.Technol. 2014, 5(7), 1.

[11] Zyzak, D. V.; Sanders, R. A.; Stojanovic, M.; Tallmadge, D. H.; Eberhart, B. L.; Ewald, D. K.;Gruber, D. C.; Morsch, T. R.; Strothers, M. A.; Rizzi, G. P.; et al. Acrylamide FormationMechanism in Heated Foods. J. Agric. Food Chem. 2003, 51(16), 4782–4787. DOI: 10.1021/jf034180i.

[12] Yaylayan, V. A.; Wnorowski, A.; Perez Locas, C. Why Asparagine Needs Carbohydrates toGenerate Acrylamide. J. Agric. Food Chem. 2003, 51(6), 1753–1757. DOI: 10.1021/jf0261506.

[13] Becalski, A.; Lau, B. P. Y.; Lewis, D.; Seaman, S. W. Acrylamide in Foods: Occurrence,Sources, and Modeling. J. Agric. Food Chem. 2003, 51(3), 802–808. DOI: 10.1021/jf020889y.

[14] Yasuhara, A.; Tanaka, Y.; Hengel, M.; Shibamoto, T. Gas Chromatographic Investigation ofAcrylamide Formation in Browning Model Systems. J. Agric. Food Chem. 2003, 51(14),3999–4003. DOI: 10.1021/jf0300947.

[15] Pundir, C. S.; Yadav, N.; Chhillar, A. K. Occurrence, Synthesis, Toxicity and DetectionMethods for Acrylamide Determination in Processed Foods with Special Reference toBiosensors: A Review. Trends Food Sci. Technol. 2019, 85, 211–225. DOI: 10.1016/j.tifs.2019.01.003.

[16] Liu, Y.; Wang, P.; Chen, F.; Yuan, Y.; Zhu, Y.; Yan, H.; Hu, X. Role of Plant Polyphenols inAcrylamide Formation and Elimination. Food Chem. 2015, 186, 46–53. DOI: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2015.03.122.

[17] Knol, J. J.; Linssen, J. P.; van Boekel, M. A. Unravelling the Kinetics of the Formation ofAcrylamide in the Maillard Reaction of Fructose and Asparagine by MultiresponseModelling. Food Chem. 2010, 120(4), 1047–1057. DOI: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2009.11.049.

[18] Hedegaard, R. V.; Granby, K.; Frandsen, H.; Thygesen, J.; Skibsted, L. H. Acrylamide inBread. Effect of Prooxidants and Antioxidants. Eur. Food Res. Technol. 2008, 227(2), 519–525.DOI: 10.1007/s00217-007-0750-5.

[19] EFSA. Monitoring of Acrylamide Levels in Foods. Sci. Rep. 2009, 285, 1–26.[20] Amrein, T. M.; Lukac, H.; Andres, L.; Perren, R.; Escher, F.; Amadò, R. Acrylamide in

Roasted Almonds and Hazelnuts. J. Agric. Food Chem. 2005, 53(20), 7819–7825. DOI:10.1021/jf051132k.

[21] Mesias, M.; Delgado-Andrade, C.; Holgado, F.; Morales, F. J. Acrylamide Content in FrenchFries Prepared in Food Service Establishments. LWT. 2019, 100, 83–91. DOI: 10.1016/j.lwt.2018.10.050.

12 A. A. MAAN ET AL.

[22] Boon, P. E.; de Mul, A.; van der Voet, H.; van Donkersgoed, G.; Brette, M.; van Klaveren, J. D.Calculations of Dietary Exposure to Acrylamide. Mutat. Res./Genet. Toxicol. Environ.Mutagen. 2005, 580(1), 143–155. DOI: 10.1016/j.mrgentox.2004.10.014.

[23] El Tawila, M. M.; Al-Ansari, A. M.; Alrasheedi, A. A.; Neamatallah, A. A. Dietary Exposure toAcrylamide from Cafeteria Foods in Jeddah Schools and Associated Risk Assessment. J. Sci.Food Agric. 2017, 97(13), 4494–4500. DOI: 10.1002/jsfa.8314.

[24] Wyka, J.; Tajner-Czopek, A.; Broniecka, A.; Piotrowska, E.; Bronkowska, M.; Biernat, J.Estimation of Dietary Exposure to Acrylamide of Polish Teenagers from an UrbanEnvironment. Food Chem. Toxicol. 2015, 75, 151–155. DOI: 10.1016/j.fct.2014.11.003.

[25] Zając, J.; Bojar, I.; Helbin, J.; Kolarzyk, E.; Potocki, A.; Strzemecka, J.; Owoc, A. DietaryAcrylamide Exposure in Chosen Population of South Poland. Ann. Agric. Environ. Med.2013, 20(2), 351–355.

[26] Mojska, H.; Gielecińska, I.; Stoś, K. Determination of Acrylamide Level in Commercial BabyFoods and an Assessment of Infant Dietary Exposure. Food Chem. Toxicol. 2012, 50(8),2722–2728. DOI: 10.1016/j.fct.2012.05.023.

[27] Normandin, L.; Bouchard, M.; Ayotte, P.; Blanchet, C.; Becalski, A.; Bonvalot, Y.; Phaneuf, D.;Lapointe, C.; Gagné, M.; Courteau, M. Dietary Exposure to Acrylamide in Adolescents froma Canadian Urban Center. Food Chem. Toxicol. 2013, 57, 75–83. DOI: 10.1016/j.fct.2013.03.005.

[28] Sirot, V.; Hommet, F.; Tard, A.; Leblanc, J.-C. Dietary Acrylamide Exposure of the FrenchPopulation: Results of the Second French Total Diet Study. Food Chem. Toxicol. 2012, 50(3),889–894. DOI: 10.1016/j.fct.2011.12.033.

[29] Zhou, P. P.; Zhao, Y. F.; Liu, H. L.; Ma, Y. J.; Li, X. W.; Yang, X.; Wu, Y. N. Dietary Exposureof the Chinese Population to Acrylamide. Biomed. Environ. Sci. 2013, 26(6), 421–429. DOI:10.3967/0895-3988.2013.06.002.

[30] WHO. Summary Report of the Sixty-Fourth Meeting of the Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committeeon Food Additive (JECFA); The ILSI Press International Life Sciences Institute: Washington,DC, 2005; pp 1–47.

[31] IARC. Monographs on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans, 1994. WHO. Lyon,France.

[32] Matoso, V.; Bargi-Souza, P.; Ivanski, F.; Romano, M. A.; Romano, R. M. Acrylamide:A Review about Its Toxic Effects in the Light of Developmental Origin of Health andDisease (DOHaD) Concept. Food Chem. 2019, 283, 422–430. DOI: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2019.01.054.

[33] Pedreschi, F.; Mariotti, M. S.; Granby, K. Current Issues in Dietary Acrylamide: Formation,Mitigation and Risk Assessment. J. Sci. Food Agric. 2014, 94(1), 9–20. DOI: 10.1002/jsfa.2014.94.issue-1.

[34] Pelucchi, C.; La Vecchia, C.; Bosetti, C.; Boyle, P.; Boffetta, P. Exposure to Acrylamide andHuman Cancer—a Review and Meta-Analysis of Epidemiologic Studies. Ann. Oncol. 2011, 22(7), 1487–1499. DOI: 10.1093/annonc/mdq610.

[35] Zeng, X.; Cheng, K.-W.; Jiang, Y.; Lin, Z.-X.; Shi, -J.-J.; Ou, S.-Y.; Chen, F.; Wang, M.Inhibition of Acrylamide Formation by Vitamins in Model Reactions and Fried PotatoStrips. Food Chem. 2009, 116(1), 34–39. DOI: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2009.01.093.

[36] Kermani-Alghoraishi, M.; Anvari, M.; Talebi, A. R.; Amini-Rad, O.; Ghahramani, R.;Miresmaili, S. M. The Effects of Acrylamide on Sperm Parameters and Membrane Integrityof Epididymal Spermatozoa in Mice. Eur. J. Obst. Gynecol. Reprod. Biol. 2010, 153(1), 52–55.DOI: 10.1016/j.ejogrb.2010.07.008.

[37] McFadden, J.; Huffman, W. Consumer Demand for Low-Acrylamide-Forming PotatoProducts: Evidence from Lab Auctions. Am. J. Potato Res. 2017, 94, 465–480. DOI:10.1007/s12230-017-9577-1.

[38] Duan, X.; Wang, Q.-C.; Chen, K.-L.; Zhu, -C.-C.; Liu, J.; Sun, S.-C. Acrylamide Toxic Effectson Mouse Oocyte Quality and Fertility in Vivo. Sci. Rep. 2015, 5, 11562. DOI: 10.1038/srep11562.

FOOD REVIEWS INTERNATIONAL 13

[39] Authority, E. F. S. Opinion of the Scientific Committee on a Request from EFSA Related toa Harmonised Approach for Risk Assessment of Substances Which are Both Genotoxic andCarcinogenic. EFSA J. 2005, 3(10), 282.

[40] Joint, F. Combined Compendium of Food Additive Specifications: Joint FAO/WHO ExpertCommittee on Food Additives: All Specifications Monographs from the 1st to the 65th Meeting(1956–2005): Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, 2005.

[41] Barlow, S.; Renwick, A.; Kleiner, J.; Bridges, J.; Busk, L.; Dybing, E.; Edler, L.; Eisenbrand, G.;Fink-Gremmels, J.; Knaap, A. Risk Assessment of Substances that are Both Genotoxic andCarcinogenic: Report of an International Conference Organized by Efsa and Who withSupport of Ilsi Europe. Food Chem. Toxicol. 2006, 44(10), 1636–1650. DOI: 10.1016/j.fct.2006.06.020.

[42] FEFSA. Scientific Opinion on Acrylamide in Foods. Efsa J. 2015, 13(6), 4104.[43] Commission, E. Commission Regulation (Eu) 2017/2158 of 20 November 2017 Establishing

Mitigation Measures and Benchmark Levels for the Reduction of the Presence of Acrylamidein Food. Off. J. Eur. Union. 2017, 304, 24–44.

[44] Sacro, J. Y. Proposition 65 and Food: You Have Now Been Warned 2005. https://www.americanbar.org/groups/business_law/publications/blt/2009/05/06_sacro/ (accessed Sep 26 2019).

[45] Warner, M. California Wants to Serve a Warning with Fries. The New York Times, Sep 21, 2005.[46] Daniali, G.; Jinap, S.; Sanny, M.; Tan, C. Effect of Amino Acids and Frequency of Reuse

Frying Oils at Different Temperature on Acrylamide Formation in Palm Olein and Soy BeanOils via Modeling System. Food Chem. 2018, 245, 1–6. DOI: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2017.10.070.

[47] Claus, A.; Mongili, M.; Weisz, G.; Schieber, A.; Carle, R. Impact of Formulation andTechnological Factors on the Acrylamide Content of Wheat Bread and Bread Rolls.J. Cereal Sci. 2008, 47(3), 546–554. DOI: 10.1016/j.jcs.2007.06.011.

[48] Mizukami, Y.; Sawai, Y.; Yamaguchi, Y. Changes in the Concentrations of Acrylamide,Selected Odorants, and Catechins Caused by Roasting of Green Tea. J. Agric. Food Chem.2008, 56(6), 2154–2159. DOI: 10.1021/jf0731806.

[49] Pedreschi, F.; Kaack, K.; Granby, K.; Troncoso, E. Acrylamide Reduction under DifferentPre-Treatments in French Fries. J. Food Eng. 2007, 79(4), 1287–1294. DOI: 10.1016/j.jfoodeng.2006.04.014.

[50] Pedreschi, F.; Kaack, K.; Granby, K. Reduction of Acrylamide Formation in Potato Slicesduring Frying. LWT Food Sci. Technol. 2004, 37(6), 679–685. DOI: 10.1016/j.lwt.2004.03.001.

[51] Van Der Fels-Klerx, H.; Capuano, E.; Nguyen, H.; Mogol, B. A.; Kocadağlı, T.; Taş, N. G.;Hamzalıoğlu, A.; Van Boekel, M.; Gökmen, V. Acrylamide and 5-HydroxymethylfurfuralFormation during Baking of Biscuits: NaCl and Temperature–Time Profile Effects andKinetics. Food Res. Int. 2014, 57, 210–217. DOI: 10.1016/j.foodres.2014.01.039.

[52] Summa, C. A.; de la Calle, B.; Brohee, M.; Stadler, R. H.; Anklam, E. Impact of the RoastingDegree of Coffee on the in Vitro Radical Scavenging Capacity and Content of Acrylamide.LWT Food Sci. Technol. 2007, 40(10), 1849–1854. DOI: 10.1016/j.lwt.2006.11.016.

[53] Lukac, H.; Amrein, T. M.; Perren, R.; Conde-Petit, B.; Amadò, R.; Escher, F. Influence ofRoasting Conditions on the Acrylamide Content and the Color of Roasted Almonds. J. FoodSci. 2007, 72(1), C033–C038. DOI: 10.1111/j.1750-3841.2006.00206.x.

[54] Farah, D.; Zaibunnisa, A.; Misnawi, J.; Zainal, S. Effect of Roasting Process on theConcentration of Acrylamide and Pyrazines in Roasted Cocoa Beans from DifferentOrigins. APCBEE Procedia. 2012, 4, 204–208. DOI: 10.1016/j.apcbee.2012.11.034.

[55] Belgin Erdoǧdu, S.; Palazoǧlu, T. K.; Gökmen, V.; Şenyuva, H. Z.; Ekiz, H. İ. Reduction ofAcrylamide Formation in French Fries by Microwave Pre-Cooking of Potato Strips. J. Sci.Food Agric. 2007, 87(1), 133–137. DOI: 10.1002/jsfa.2688.

[56] Anese, M.; Nicoli, M. C.; Verardo, G.; Munari, M.; Mirolo, G.; Bortolomeazzi, R. Effect ofVacuum Roasting on Acrylamide Formation and Reduction in Coffee Beans. Food Chem.2014, 145, 168–172. DOI: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2013.08.047.

[57] Anese, M.; Suman, M.; Nicoli, M. C. Acrylamide Removal from Heated Foods. Food Chem.2010, 119(2), 791–794. DOI: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2009.06.043.

14 A. A. MAAN ET AL.

[58] Granda, C.; Moreira, R.; Tichy, S. Reduction of Acrylamide Formation in Potato Chips byLow-Temperature Vacuum Frying. J. Food Sci. 2004, 69(8), E405–E411. DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2621.2004.tb09903.x.

[59] Antunes-Rohling, A.; Ciudad-Hidalgo, S.; Mir-Bel, J.; Raso, J.; Cebrián, G.; Álvarez, I.Ultrasound as a Pretreatment to Reduce Acrylamide Formation in Fried Potatoes.Innovative Food Sci. Emerg. Technol. 2018, 49, 158–169. DOI: 10.1016/j.ifset.2018.08.010.

[60] Barutcu, I.; Sahin, S.; Sumnu, G. Acrylamide Formation in Different Batter Formulationsduring Microwave Frying. LWT Food Sci. Technol. 2009, 42(1), 17–22. DOI: 10.1016/j.lwt.2008.07.004.

[61] Sansano, M.; Juan-Borrás, M.; Escriche, I.; Andrés, A.; Heredia, A. Effect of Pretreatments andAir-Frying, a Novel Technology, on Acrylamide Generation in Fried Potatoes. J. Food Sci.2015, 80(5), T1120–T1128. DOI: 10.1111/jfds.2015.80.issue-5.

[62] Salazar, R.; Arambula-Villa, G.; Luna-Barcenas, G.; Figueroa-Cardenas, J.; Azuara, E.;Vazquez-Landaverde, P. A. Effect of Added Calcium Hydroxide during CornNixtamalization on Acrylamide Content in Tortilla Chips. LWT Food Sci. Technol. 2014, 56(1), 87–92. DOI: 10.1016/j.lwt.2013.10.046.

[63] Zou, Y.; Huang, C.; Pei, K.; Cai, Y.; Zhang, G.; Hu, C.; Ou, S. Cysteine Alone or inCombination with Glycine Simultaneously Reduced the Contents of Acrylamide andHydroxymethylfurfural. LWT Food Sci. Technol. 2015, 63(1), 275–280. DOI: 10.1016/j.lwt.2015.03.104.

[64] Kalita, D.; Jayanty, S. S. Reduction of Acrylamide Formation by Vanadium Salt in Potato FrenchFries and Chips. Food Chem. 2013, 138(1), 644–649. DOI: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2012.09.123.

[65] Casado, F. J.; Sánchez, A. H.; Montaño, A. Reduction of Acrylamide Content of Ripe Olives bySelected Additives. Food Chem. 2010, 119(1), 161–166. DOI: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2009.06.009.

[66] Kita, A.; Bråthen, E.; Knutsen, S. H.; Wicklund, T. Effective Ways of Decreasing AcrylamideContent in Potato Crisps during Processing. J. Agric. Food Chem. 2004, 52(23), 7011–7016.DOI: 10.1021/jf049269i.

[67] Jia, M.; Xu, M.; He, B.; Rao, Z. Cloning, Expression, and Characterization of L-Asparaginasefrom a Newly Isolated Bacillus Subtilis B11–06. J. Agric. Food Chem. 2013, 61(39), 9428–9434.DOI: 10.1021/jf402636w.

[68] Meghavarnam, A. K.; Janakiraman, S. Evaluation of Acrylamide Reduction Potential ofL-Asparaginase from Fusarium culmorum (Asp-87) in Starchy Products. LWT Food Sci.Technol. 2018, 89, 32–37. DOI: 10.1016/j.lwt.2017.09.048.

[69] Dias, F. F. G.; Junior, S. B.; Hantao, L. W.; Augusto, F.; Sato, H. H. Acrylamide Mitigation inFrench Fries Using Native L-Asparaginase from Aspergillus oryzae Cct 3940. LWT Food Sci.Technol. 2017, 76, 222–229. DOI: 10.1016/j.lwt.2016.04.017.

[70] Viklund, G. Å.; Olsson, K. M.; Sjöholm, I. M.; Skog, K. I. Acrylamide in Crisps: Effect ofBlanching Studied on Long-Term Stored Potato Clones. J. Food Compost. Anal. 2010, 23(2),194–198. DOI: 10.1016/j.jfca.2009.07.009.

[71] Mestdagh, F.; De Wilde, T.; Fraselle, S.; Govaert, Y.; Ooghe, W.; Degroodt, J.-M.; Verhé, R.;Van Peteghem, C.; De Meulenaer, B. Optimization of the Blanching Process to ReduceAcrylamide in Fried Potatoes. LWT Food Sci. Technol. 2008, 41(9), 1648–1654. DOI:10.1016/j.lwt.2007.10.007.

[72] Truong, V.-D.; Pascua, Y. T.; Reynolds, R.; Thompson, R. L.; Palazoğlu, T. K.; Atac Mogol, B.;Gökmen, V. Processing Treatments for Mitigating Acrylamide Formation in SweetpotatoFrench Fries. J. Agric. Food Chem. 2014, 62(1), 310–316. DOI: 10.1021/jf404290v.

[73] Zuo, S.; Zhang, T.; Jiang, B.; Mu, W. Reduction of Acrylamide Level through Blanching withTreatment by an Extremely Thermostable L-Asparaginase during French Fries Processing.Extremophiles. 2015, 19(4), 841–851. DOI: 10.1007/s00792-015-0763-0.

[74] Zhang, Y.; Kahl, D. H.; Bizimungu, B.; Lu, Z.-X. Effects of Blanching Treatments onAcrylamide, Asparagine, Reducing Sugars and Colour in Potato Chips. J. Food Sci. Technol.2018, 55(10), 4028–4041.

FOOD REVIEWS INTERNATIONAL 15

[75] Bartkiene, E.; Jakobsone, I.; Pugajeva, I.; Bartkevics, V.; Zadeike, D.; Juodeikiene, G. Reducingof Acrylamide Formation in Wheat Biscuits Supplemented with Flaxseed and Lupine. LWTFood Sci. Technol. 2016, 65, 275–282. DOI: 10.1016/j.lwt.2015.08.002.

[76] Bartkiene, E.; Jakobsone, I.; Juodeikiene, G.; Vidmantiene, D.; Pugajeva, I.; Bartkevics, V.Effect of Fermented Helianthus tuberosus L. Tubers on Acrylamide Formation and QualityProperties of Wheat Bread. LWT Food Sci. Technol. 2013, 54(2), 414–420. DOI: 10.1016/j.lwt.2013.05.015.

[77] Akıllıoglu, H. G.; Gökmen, V. Mitigation of Acrylamide and Hydroxymethyl Furfural inInstant Coffee by Yeast Fermentation. Food Res. Int. 2014, 61, 252–256. DOI: 10.1016/j.foodres.2013.07.057.

[78] Bartkiene, E.; Jakobsone, I.; Juodeikiene, G.; Vidmantiene, D.; Pugajeva, I.; Bartkevics, V.Study on the Reduction of Acrylamide in Mixed Rye Bread by Fermentation withBacteriocin-Like Inhibitory Substances Producing Lactic Acid Bacteria in Combination withAspergillus niger Glucoamylase. Food Control. 2013, 30(1), 35–40. DOI: 10.1016/j.foodcont.2012.07.012.

[79] Nachi, I.; Fhoula, I.; Smida, I.; Taher, I. B.; Chouaibi, M.; Jaunbergs, J.; Bartkevics, V.;Hassouna, M. Assessment of Lactic Acid Bacteria Application for the Reduction ofAcrylamide Formation in Bread. LWT. 2018, 92, 435–441. DOI: 10.1016/j.lwt.2018.02.061.

[80] Qi, Y.; Zhang, H.; Wu, G.; Zhang, H.; Gu, L.; Wang, L.; Qian, H.; Qi, X. Mitigation Effects ofProanthocyanidins with Different Structures on Acrylamide Formation in Chemical andFried Potato Crisp Models. Food Chem. 2018.

[81] Demirok, E.; Kolsarıcı, N. Effect of Green Tea Extract and Microwave Pre-Cooking on theFormation of Acrylamide in Fried Chicken Drumsticks and Chicken Wings. Food Res. Int.2014, 63, 290–298. DOI: 10.1016/j.foodres.2014.04.003.

[82] Morales, G.; Jimenez, M.; Garcia, O.; Mendoza, M. R.; Beristain, C. I. Effect of NaturalExtracts on the Formation of Acrylamide in Fried Potatoes. LWT Food Sci. Technol. 2014,58(2), 587–593. DOI: 10.1016/j.lwt.2014.03.034.

[83] Urbančič, S.; Kolar, M. H.; Dimitrijević, D.; Demšar, L.; Vidrih, R. Stabilisation of Sunflower Oiland Reduction of Acrylamide Formation of Potato with Rosemary Extract during Deep-FatFrying. LWT Food Sci. Technol. 2014, 57(2), 671–678. DOI: 10.1016/j.lwt.2013.11.002.

[84] Li, D.; Chen, Y.; Zhang, Y.; Lu, B.; Jin, C.; Wu, X.; Zhang, Y. Study on Mitigation ofAcrylamide Formation in Cookies by 5 Antioxidants. J. Food Sci. 2012, 77(11), C1144–C1149. DOI: 10.1111/j.1750-3841.2012.02949.x.

[85] Yang, Y.; Achaerandio, I.; Pujolà, M. Influence of the Frying Process and Potato Cultivar onAcrylamide Formation in French Fries. Food Control. 2016, 62, 216–223. DOI: 10.1016/j.foodcont.2015.10.028.

[86] Daniali, G.; Jinap, S.; Hajeb, P.; Sanny, M.; Tan, C. Acrylamide Formation in Vegetable Oilsand Animal Fats during Heat Treatment. Food Chem. 2016, 212, 244–249. DOI: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2016.05.174.

[87] Katragadda, H. R.; Fullana, A.; Sidhu, S.; Carbonell-Barrachina, Á. A. Emissions of VolatileAldehydes from Heated Cooking Oils. Food Chem. 2010, 120(1), 59–65. DOI: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2009.09.070.

[88] Williams, J.;. Influence of Variety and Processing Conditions on Acrylamide Levels in FriedPotato Crisps. Food Chem. 2005, 90(4), 875–881. DOI: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2004.05.050.

[89] Matthäus, B.; Haase, N. U.; Vosmann, K. Factors Affecting the Concentration of Acrylamideduring Deep-Fat Frying of Potatoes. Eur. J. Lipid Sci. Technol. 2004, 106(11), 793–801. DOI:10.1002/ejlt.200400992.

[90] Van Der Fels-Klerx, H. J.; Capuano, E.; Nguyen, H. T.; Ataç Mogol, B.; Kocadağlı, T.;Göncüoğlu Taş, N.; Hamzalıoğlu, A.; Van Boekel, M. A. J. S.; Gökmen, V. Acrylamide and5-Hydroxymethylfurfural Formation during Baking of Biscuits: NaCl and Temperature–TimeProfile Effects and Kinetics. Food Res. Int. 2014, 57, 210–217. DOI: 10.1016/j.foodres.2014.01.039.

16 A. A. MAAN ET AL.

[91] Mustafa, A.; Andersson, R.; Rosén, J.; Kamal-Eldin, A.; Åman, P. Factors InfluencingAcrylamide Content and Color in Rye Crisp Bread. J. Agric. Food Chem. 2005, 53(15),5985–5989. DOI: 10.1021/jf050020q.

[92] Claeys, W. L.; De Vleeschouwer, K.; Hendrickx, M. E. Quantifying the Formation ofCarcinogens during Food Processing: Acrylamide. Trends Food Sci. Technol. 2005, 16(5),181–193. DOI: 10.1016/j.tifs.2005.01.005.

[93] Palazoğlu, T. K.; Coşkun, Y.; Tuta, S.; Mogol, B. A.; Gökmen, V. Effect of Vacuum-CombinedBaking of Cookies on Acrylamide Content, Texture and Color. Eur. Food Res. Technol. 2015,240(1), 243–249. DOI: 10.1007/s00217-014-2324-7.

[94] Yıldız, H. G.; Palazoğlu, T. K.; Miran, W.; Kocadağlı, T.; Gökmen, V. Evolution of SurfaceTemperature and Its Relationship with Acrylamide Formation during Conventional andVacuum-Combined Baking of Cookies. J. Food Eng. 2017, 197, 17–23. DOI: 10.1016/j.jfoodeng.2016.11.001.

[95] Belkova, B.; Hradecky, J.; Hurkova, K.; Forstova, V.; Vaclavik, L.; Hajslova, J. Impact ofVacuum Frying on Quality of Potato Crisps and Frying Oil. Food Chem. 2018, 241, 51–59.DOI: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2017.08.062.

[96] Shukla, R.; Barve, V.; Padhye, S.; Bhonde, R. Reduction of Oxidative Stress InducedVanadium Toxicity by Complexing with A Flavonoid, Quercetin: A PragmaticTherapeutic Approach for Diabetes. Biometals. 2006, 19(6), 685–693. DOI: 10.1007/s10534-006-9005-3.

[97] Bishayee, A.; Waghray, A.; Patel, M. A.; Chatterjee, M. Vanadium in the Detection,Prevention and Treatment of Cancer: The in Vivo Evidence. Cancer Lett. 2010, 294(1),1–12. DOI: 10.1016/j.canlet.2010.01.030.

[98] Yuan, Y.; Shu, C.; Zhou, B.; Qi, X.; Xiang, J. Impact of Selected Additives on AcrylamideFormation in Asparagine/Sugar Maillard Model Systems. Food Res. Int. 2011, 44(1), 449–455.DOI: 10.1016/j.foodres.2010.09.025.

[99] Sun, Z.; Qin, R.; Li, D.; Ji, K.; Wang, T.; Cui, Z.; Huang, Y. A Novel Bacterial Type IIiL-Asparaginase and Evaluation of Its Enzymatic Acrylamide Reduction in French Fries. Int.J. Biol. Macromol. 2016, 92, 232–239. DOI: 10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2016.07.031.

[100] Shrivastava, A.; Khan, A. A.; Khurshid, M.; Kalam, M. A.; Jain, S. K.; Singhal, P. K. RecentDevelopments in L-Asparaginase Discovery and Its Potential as Anticancer Agent. Crit. Rev.Oncol./hematol. 2016, 100, 1–10. DOI: 10.1016/j.critrevonc.2015.01.002.

[101] Bedade, D. K.; Sutar, Y. B.; Singhal, R. S. Chitosan Coated Calcium Alginate Beads forCovalent Immobilization of Acrylamidase: Process Parameters and Removal of Acrylamidefrom Coffee. Food Chem. 2019, 275, 95–104. DOI: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2018.09.090.

[102] Abboudi, M.; Al-Bachir, M.; Koudsi, Y.; Jouhara, H. Combined Effects of Gamma Irradiationand Blanching Process on Acrylamide Content in Fried Potato Strips. Int. J. Food Prop. 2016,19(7), 1447–1454. DOI: 10.1080/10942912.2014.968790.

[103] Mesias, M.; Delgado-Andrade, C.; Holgado, F.; Morales, F. J. Acrylamide Content in FrenchFries Prepared in Households: A Pilot Study in Spanish Homes. Food Chem. 2018, 260,44–52. DOI: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2018.03.140.

[104] Wang, S.; Yu, J.; Xin, Q.; Wang, S.; Copeland, L. Effects of Starch Damage and YeastFermentation on Acrylamide Formation in Bread. Food Control. 2017, 73, 230–236. DOI:10.1016/j.foodcont.2016.08.002.

[105] Fredriksson, H.; Tallving, J.; Rosén, J.; Åman, P. Fermentation Reduces Free Asparagine inDough and Acrylamide Content in Bread. Cereal Chem. 2004, 81(5), 650–653. DOI: 10.1094/CCHEM.2004.81.5.650.

[106] Baardseth, P.; Blom, H.; Skrede, G.; Mydland, L. T.; Skrede, A.; Slinde, E. Lactic AcidFermentation Reduces Acrylamide Formation and Other Maillard Reactions in FrenchFries. J. Food Sci. 2006, 71(1), C28–C33. DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2621.2006.tb12384.x.

[107] Bartkiene, E.; Jakobsone, I.; Juodeikiene, G.; Vidmantiene, D.; Pugajeva, I.; Bartkevics, V.Effect of Lactic Acid Fermentation of Lupine Wholemeal on Acrylamide Content and QualityCharacteristics of Wheat-Lupine Bread. Int. J. Food Sci. Nutr. 2013, 64(7), 890–896. DOI:10.3109/09637486.2013.805185.

FOOD REVIEWS INTERNATIONAL 17

[108] Vattem, D. A.; Shetty, K. Acrylamide in Food: A Model for Mechanism of Formation and ItsReduction. Innovative Food Sci. Emerg. Technol. 2003, 4(3), 331–338. DOI: 10.1016/S1466-8564(03)00033-X.

[109] Kahkeshani, N.; Saeidnia, S.; Abdollahi, M. Role of Antioxidants and Phytochemicals onAcrylamide Mitigation from Food and Reducing Its Toxicity. J. Food Sci. Technol. 2015, 52(6), 3169–3186. DOI: 10.1007/s13197-014-1558-5.

[110] Ashkezari, M. H.; Salehifar, M. Inhibitory Effects of Pomegranate Flower Extract and VitaminB3 on the Formation of Acrylamide during the Donut Making Process. J. Food Meas. Charact.2019, 13(1), 735–744. DOI: 10.1007/s11694-018-9986-y.

[111] Constantinou, C.; Koutsidis, G. Investigations on the Effect of Antioxidant Type andConcentration and Model System Matrix on Acrylamide Formation in Model MaillardReaction Systems. Food Chem. 2016, 197, 769–775. DOI: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2015.11.037.

18 A. A. MAAN ET AL.