OL

69

99

gg apesnlJ erl]

i9

l9

I9

uorsrf,ac,sEItlI]EW .g.t

rElN IErrSolorp{sd v '9',

trISrN arIrJo rapEsnrC eqJ .i.,

roJ dpBax'suEruotto aqt tsurBBE auolv urE8v aluo .€.t

aqnuBc aql uo uSI?dtuED S.PEIA 'Z.t ryg ITI.TA I]IqI EJEId PAIJOIS E

lrpl re rpnq pel\ qJrnqf, erlJ '?'t

I uI quela pue larrroC s.dalpH 'E't

EI{ IZ :BrrBurodJo rlulg eql 'z't

EPT-c (9stl; reuro3 sy'apg

@no-rqt pada-nuo3 a8zssa141 y 'y'y

UAINU IUVNOISIA V ''rIr]J\.uO III OVIA CO If,VCA'I AHT 'E

Ia^ou s,ra{ols urEJg'I'z.IVNOIJ3IC CO WIV!ru AHJ

{O:II{J-NVd TVCruOJSIH gHJ IAIOXC'Z

sBurq uerueuroa

uo11 tuepuadapur d1,ra.au eq1 'V'l

?uIJo uortEr"lraP eqJ - LLgl 't'lqadouu4 patun aqJ - 65gI '7.'l

p agr,:a-ndug uErrroD6 aqI 'I'I

AUNJNSS HJNSSISNIN SHJ

IT'II TYf, ruOJSIH CACCA'IC-'I'INC V' I

-'srea.( ggy rar;y

II IUVd

IIoqtrE Ieruf, s,psl^Jo /vrer^al v'g'gqzpue8edo:d:oJ pesn aruBu V'Z'g

E6' seruBrlP [BruourrrlEru asolf, 'I 'g

WNJ)VCJSOd'8

t)f,v'Is Y (INV'SJSXCiIU 'SdOWnd '/

OUHINS-TII ONV NOII\TU:ISIT AHJ '9

lr€ruod aqI 'g's

ralqdme4 snourduouy aqJ 'Z'g

pdu6 epur8zdor4 Sur8ea y '1'9

N'[.OU3 SIH JO Hf,UVgS NI DNI) V'9

IESSEA paurElun uv 'I't

SCVSNUC NVI^IOJIO-IJNV :IHJ

CO NOIIVWY'If,OXd gHI CINV II SNId AdOd'T

65 lylsure8yeuoy'g'€69 suoxes eqr ]sure8y re6 pnrauruoC aql .2.€

99 ,]ElnO apEsnrD arD, ro uroc uErqrBll?ar ^

aN srlJ .I'€

99 JVITUHI NVIAIOJJO AHJ IINO'IV CNIf,YC'€

tg ,fie8ung;o 3uq1 ,snura-ro3 sEnprEW .g.Z

nS Brr{TEIIEA\Jo satue8ra,uq prrraruruoC a:q^1- .L.Z

€s uoDutuo{uoc raPzorg v .g.z

I S srnoqq8ra111 ssepsad arp Burczg .g.7

Ig rap-rog uerue,rldsuEll arDJo aluaJac arp uI euolv .'.2

gt u8ral puoca5 s,pEI -.sua^Beq aqr qtrr,,r SulzruorulEH, - gsrl .E.Z

Lt u8raa ]s.rrg eqj- - Srnl .Z.Z

8€ splro^, ]ualaJJrp aarrlt Jo acueuadxa uy .Sur8urrqdn s,pEIA .I.Z

8g SUVSSIIuOC SIH CO IICVJN:IH AHJ SNIIUUVC - III CVIA'Z9e uo8zrq eqrJo raprg erp pue InrErC II peIL.Z.y.l

0€ raplg eqtrarrrw'I't'I

0€ l:nruer qlsl-qrtl aqt:o\spooarco

uErqtrBIIBl(\ Jo sapesnrcyo Lrqod eq1 .reerql uBruollo egJ .t.I

nZ .,hsrui(p qereseg .uop?punoJ Erqr"lplN aql .€.I

BI txaluof, pf,ruouof,a pue prqqodoag .eruuali(suerlJo puEI arlJ 'Z.I

s I saPBsru) puz ,bede4 .1 .1

sr IXiIJNOf, NVAdOUnA UACVOUS V'r

aruessruuell.(yree ;o pua8el alllusra^ V .Brg )el1-r. K lo ponalo1lll puIA

I IUVII

uorlJnPoIuI

slueluoJ

VI

Contents

rersatile legend of early Renaissance

:::= l':--::iitrcal and economical context

:::: ' l:sarab dvnasq"

L. : ---::r oi crusades of $Tallachian

::---:a- :-:r

:: l::=: c::he Dragon

:-r :.GE OF HIS FOREBEARS

- :i:::-::.:e ofthree different worlds

.r-. : ,:ear ens'- Vlad's Second Reign

-: - . l:=:.r'ivanianBorder

:::.- :.> oi \\'a11achia

-- -- 1,.--^-- i ., rrridt \

' - . ---,(tr-1 I

: - -::. :i rhe Crusade Ducat'

:: -:-.r::!: the Saxons

l(lt\ ut1-:

---,. l.'..:be

r:r-:: ::r. Ottomans, Ready for the crusade

l4

15

15

18

24

30

30

36

38

38

47

48

51

51

53

54

54

56

56

59

59

61

6t

64

55

66

69

70

5. A KING IN SEARCH OF HIS CRO\rN

5.1. A Raging Propaganda Campaign

5.2. The Anonymous Pamphlet

5.3. The Portrait

6. THE LIBERATION AND RE-ENTHRONEMENT OF VLAD

7. RUMORS, REGRETS, AND A BLACK LEGEND

8. POSTFACTUM

8. 1. Close matrimonial alliances with a King

8.2. A name used for propaganda benefits

8.3. A review ofVlad's cruel actions

PART IIAfter 400 years...

72

73

/4

76

80

81

82

82

82

83

88

1. A FULL-FLEDGED HISTORICAL FIGURE IN

THENINETEENTHCENTURY 89

1. 1. The Ottoman Empire: 'the sick man of Europe' 90

1.2. 1.859 - The United Principalities of Moldavia and \Tallachia 9l

1.3. 1.877 - The declarati6l ef ildipendence 92

1.4. The newly independent Romania and the crown of steel of the

Romanian kings

2. FROM THE HISTORICAL PANTHEON OF HEROES TO

THE REALM OF FICTIONAL

2.1. Bram Stoker's novel

3. THE LEGACY OF VLAD III DRACULA TEPE$ [THE IMPALER]

4. A VISIONARY RULER

4.1. A Message Conveyed through a Coin:

Halley's Comet (t456) Guiding the lVallachian Eagle

4.2. The Birth of Romania: 2l May 787 7, 1O:OO, Bucharest

4.3. Halleys Comet and events in Romania's history

4.4. The Church Mad built at Ti,rggor -a storied place thick with historical narratives 1 18

94

95

98

104

106

106

tt2

114

I,r'dceded Sururro;ar o1

r .\ipPorq aq] Jo ]lnsar B sE eroJeq

? :DPSnrJ ]srrc eq] Jo alurt eql ]E

r:ril Jo sesuel eql qSnorqr Pa,{Aer^

+ ,ro IEarqlno eqt o] Pal qrlqas II uEqrn ado4 yo sserf,ns eqt tnq;a aPESnrf, ar{}Jo EaPr aqJ 'slaPuur

!:i- io EaPr aql ol PalnqrJluof, pu?

r.-?err 'rB.^A. rurlsnry lqoq aqt 'porqr[

r rrixEISI aq] 'pueq rar{}o aq} uO

r-rc:tn]osqE uEtu lB^erpelu aql Surrq

ld \loH eqt o] deu:no[ eq] paurnl

r 'suEIlsIrqJ Jo PIJo,&\ pnlrrrds agt

:i-rd 1o uortrpEr] er{} sr }sru qJIq \:-:- -lo Eapr aq] Jo ur8rro eq] tV

saPBsnJJ aqrJo sasnE]

:P:S JaPUnSrrU PUE UOTSUa] PaSBeJf, UI

p.:Pp aq Ppoqs o.e\t aq] ueal(leqo s3qlJnL{J aq} uee.r'tqeq )EaJq IBUUJl? e peleJrunurruorxa sale8al pded::z:rtzd Sursnuo:durolun aq] uaq.&\

'.{I qrrnr{r ura}sea aq}go d}rroqtnz) .urrorlln? a^Eq Plnoqs - qJrnqr;: - odod eq] wq] pa^erleq euloU:1:o:d oruog sE drnluar qlI I aq] ur

::? re-\o salndsrq 'aruo1;o rarrrod-:rrtrlod o] anp peuesro,la' (acuce:dsr.ro)srp snor8qea ']seg aq] tuor;\ ar{l ruou selr?uorssrru (JrloI{lEOu-r.r.r: suor8ar rI ?lS uI'lortuor pu?; s-uaruaar8esrp pue aldoulluelsuoo::E-r ot ue8aq aruog Surleads-une1.,rr sP-\\ arrdug ueruod aql aJurs

e irede; '1'1

)U-r:I UACVOUB VI

aJuessrBuea dl.reayo pue8al e1;lesraa VYIHf,V'I]VIO. {O AOAEIOAIII CV'IA

I IUVd

tTI) OF EAILACHIAriearlv Renaissance

1.

A BROADER EUROPEAN CONTEXT

1.1. Papacy and Crusades

Since the Roman Empire was divided into \7est and East (285 CE),

Latin-speaking Rome began to claim superiority over Greek-speakingConstantinople and disagreements evolved over the church boundariesand control. In Slavic regions rivalry developed between Latin (Roman

Catholic) missionaries from the \7est and Byzantines (Orthodox)

from the East. Religious discords (differences in doctrine, clericalpractice) worsened due to political conflicts particularly regarding thepower of Rome. Disputes over authority became even more intense

in the 1lth century as Rome proclaimed its primacy over all churches.

Rome believed that the pope - the religious leader of the westernchurch - should have authority over the patriarch - the religiousauthority of the eastern church. The tensions became a schism in 1054

when the uncompromising patriarch of Constantinople and the threepapal legates excommunicated each other. However, this was not the

final break between the Churches of East and \7est. Rather the breach

between the two should be dated to after 1096 when the crusades

increased tension and misunderstanding between Latins and Greeks.33

Causes ofthe crusades

At the origin of the idea of the crusade rests several factors ofwhich first is the tradition of pilgrimage to Jerusalem, the center ofthe spiritual world of Christians. A road whose difficulties and perilsturned the journey to the Holy Places into the penitence that couldbring the medieval man absolution of sins.

On the other hand, the Islamic conquests ensouled by the spirit ofjthad, the holy Muslim war, created a response in the Christian worldand contributed to the idea of the legitimacy of the war against the

infidels. The idea of the crusade emerged from these two backgrounds,but the success of Pope Urban II's (r.1088-99) sermon at Clermont,which led to the outbreak of the first crusade in 1095 must be

viewed through the lenses of change, manifested itself very stronglyat the time of the First Crusade, and that had been developing longbefore as a result of the broadly disseminated propaganda dedicatedto reforming papary.34

or

ea

r:o. :sEI atq ' I6ZI ur pue ,(rnluec qtg 1

. i--orssessod u:a1sa7p, Jo ssol eql' rrlor{w3 pue utetse4\) sroradura

-: -:o :aldourluetsuoJ yo lsanbuoc aqtsr: ixo! su?rlaua1 aqr dq peuJnl se.t.

10r eqt sellasap uorlueru pnads y:c :orrBzrueSJo aql ol pal ]Er{t sassef,Jns

:? Drno-\\ oq,ta. 'srurlsny4i dq pelseguoc' sruSru) truolnal aq] pue ,sreldrual

sra)ro luour fuelqrur aq] dq parnsse'-l ':uauo eq] uI pal]les stsrlEpneJ eql-r-: \\ petuo{uo3 'paqdde eJeA\ '}uarto

:xsrFpneJ uratselN Jo slapour erar{^\

,:r i:unor oql rqloquv3o dlqedrcurrd,'+ ouel 1.1o11 aqr Jo sarlrpdrcurrd

:is::qEtse p1nol\ slsanbuoo asar{I

'660I ul patanbuor se.Ll

dr.:1 'qoouuy'rssapg) ]sEE rBaN aqt uri:ir s_rapBsnlf, arIJ sr'aruouJo qrrnqJr:.ruor eq pue rusersnr{}ue snor8rlars-:-\run z ur drqsrapeel aqt urory dordrd.:.: '.:r ure8 erll

^\BSeroJ eq ruqr dlqeqord

: +i\\. puy ',{-r}unoc sr(ruaua eq} o}ur: -sou: edo:ng Surtralord Jo dtlssacau: :-ilT-IgOI't) soueuuo) I solxalv:l--: -iq pe^oru II u?qJn ado4 ,og

-lr rutJo Eapr eqlJo sseJtns aqt ureldxar?j i3qtoue sr 'aceds palnr-qeJv aq] ur?i-'jrluluoJ ro; 'Surlroddns ur lseJelurpi:: atrua1Jo re,rod Sursearcur aq1

'slq3ru1 uratsal1r.. ct urrr{ 8uraa.o1p snq} ,ruopualslJq:)

:u. adod eql luo{ dlaq 1se o} asoql.'.rj:]luet qrII aqrJo pue aq] spJ?,4aoJ

:::z\g aql Jo osP lnq sqe:y aqtSo Lluor.. -\\o rrrr{t JoJ ezrleer o} ra8ea Jor{lEJ

: ::'c.?tsun pa.rto-rd peq daqr teqr dpo: :.:oradrua aurluezdg eqlJo uoqrpBrl: .:. rlnoqs (sace14,(1og eqt palnr oq,^ .

sqBJV aql p,Je LgOl ur rourry BrsV peltJteuad oqr,n sryn1 1n(tag eqr;sue8rd aqt tsure8r tq8g agr ur slq8rul uralselNJo dlaq aqr urory luauaqo1 e:rdurg auquezdg equo slseJalur aq] (slua^a repcruedJo sruJel uI

'toe[ord

aql Jo sJolEllrul el{l JoJ ue^a uorsaqpe paDadxaun uE Jo }uarua^orue SurraSSrrl 'adorng uralse/Xr ssoJf,B slapuur aql lsurEBE rr{8u aqr olIIEJ eqt 3o e8essaur aqt parJJBJ (3ra1c srql 'drrper eJnf,es pue 3unr1? olur uopuetsrJq3 Sururnt 'aldoad arlt Jo 1eaa1 snorS[eJ eqt osrrrpadyaq per{ etuo1 yo adod aq} ot d8ralo tuarpaqo pue paurTdrcsrp y'Je,l\od JEInf,as Jo eru8rsur pue spuururuof, dueru Je,ro Sur>1el dq 'tse2Xaq1 ur.&rroqtne Ieroru eruardns pleq put 'paueql3uer1s peqdceded aqr

'ur.royar IeuJelur slrJo llnsal e sE puB'os op o1 paJe.rt .odue se.rr,r qlJnqDeql 'stseJelur str elJas ppona trql spo8 ol Frtuatod rfuetqrru .sJorJJE.6aesaqt llarrp o1 lq8nos aruog Jo qlrnq3 eql 'ftlB rr{r Jo IBapr eqrSurzruerlsrrg3 pue 'uepprqJoJ st.t'^, Surrq8g qlqllr'Surrnp 'sacnrl pueecead s,po5 Sururrelcord dg 'uor1u1sa;ruuruJo sagqrqrssod rraql tf,rJlsaJot papuet lsolN aql ur ecrad 3o elururlf, ? rlsrTqelse ot suoJJa s,qlJnr{Deql lnq 'aJII Jo denr dpep eq] sEA\ JE.r.t' eql 'rueqt rog 'pJo.rras Jrarp JoelJoJ eql dq 3un11 E a>lBru o1 pa8qqo sallasrueql ru.es 'uroqlsrg aqlor pa8uoleq qJlqa 'qlpan ptuarrd;o af,uelrJerlur eqt uro{ polorueJ

'rartartoq 'aratr,t utoqrt ;o durur 'Suqpueq uodrarvr. yo qeuorssaJord

'stq8rulSo (:o8alec e8rel eq1 'ep?snJtr ? r{f,ns d:oqnduroc ep"ur tnqpaluesuoJ dpo tou dlarcos uJelse4\ Jo eJnlf,nJls IBlrqlJEJerq ar{J

'uonnlos ? ueeq eAEq plnol (uoseal lsruorsuedxe ue ro; ']uarrg aql

spJ?.r.ot uorlelndod eqtJo ssaoxe agt Surpeel'og 'spueurap Ip taau louppor pue luarJuJnsur paureurar serJnoseJ eql aFIA\ dlarcos Jo slelel

IIB lB uonelndod ur es?aJJuI urruef, r srlu. aouanbesuof, eltrperurur slr

]nq 'un8aq dpearp peq luarudole^ep Jet"l str Surdpepun runtueruoruf,rruouof,e al{t 'lselN ar{l uI 'spuul asaql JeAo e{El pue ranbuoc o1

padde ue petnlnsuof, lsa4\ aql o] pereduroc sB tuerJg JrruEIsI roeurluezdg arll Jo ernllnf, pnlrrrds pue Ierraleru Jo Ia aI rorradnsqJnur arIJ 'dpt1 osp per{real pue ueautJJarlpa6 uretsug aqt ssoJJB

ef,uengur pue raru.od s1r pepurdxe t1 'arrdurg auquezdg aql sE u.rrl'oul

aq ol erueJ put per{srJnog arrdurg ueruo1 aql r}stg eqt q }ng '}sol

dleraldruoc lsorult a8payra.oul uorlezr1rlrf, IBJTssBIJ slr pue su?rJBqJ?q

dq pa8ezrer aruod qlr1( ',a8y 1:eq, e g8norqt tual . tsa4\ aq1 'I:nxn1pue repuo^\ Jo plJol( E Jo eJueJeedde aqr suerlsrJqJ uJatsal(\roJ peq tuaIJO eql 'sepesnrC eqt Jo sesntJ aqt JoJ 3ur1oo1 uaqrrr'

lunoJf,E olur ua1tl aq ol sr 'uopepdod uJalse4\ aqt yo dtrro[rur eql

3o 'suorlrlsradns qtvrt penqur seruqaruos Jr uele '(lrsor8qar deeq

-

tfues imbued with superstitions, ofnletion, is to be taken into account

the Crusades. The Orient had for:nce of a world of wonder and

e Dark Age', with Rome ravaged bY

mion lnowledge almost comPletelY

l F,mpire flourished and came to be

trt expanded its power and influence

n and reached also Italy. The much

ryiritual culture of the Byzantine

to ttre .West constituted an aPPeal

r lands. In the \7est, the economic

ilrelopment had already begun, butr certajn increase irr population at all

rEes remeined ilsufficient and could

;tre excess of the population towards

zson, could have been a solution.

Vestern society not only consented

sede. The large category ofknights,D& many of whom were, however,

Iprental wealt]r, which belonged tobfted to make a living by the force

ar was the daily way of life, but the

imate of peace in the \fest tended tofesation. By proclaiming God's peace

rg Eas forbidden, and Christianizingrh of Rome sought to direct these

els that would serve its interests. The

y and as a result of its internal reform,lheld supreme moral authodry in themands and insignia of secular power.

ry to the pope of Rome had helPed

people, turning Christendom into a

lerg)- carried the message of the call

asoss 'Western Europe, triggering a

hesion even for the initiators of the

!e interests of the Byzantine Empire totnigtrts in the fight against the pagans

arl Asia Minor irr 1067 and the Arabs

who ruled the Holy Places) should also be considered. There was even a

tradition of the Byzantine emperor in recruiting Norman mercenaries,only that they had proved unstable: ready at any time to revolt andrather eager to realize for their own benefit (and to the detriment notonly of the Arabs but also of the Byzantines) a Mediterranean empire.Towards the end of the 1lth century, the Emperor of Constantinoplechose to ask help from the pope, and to plead his case throughoutChristendom, thus allowing him to benefit from the military force of'Western knights.

The increasing power of Venice and other Italian republics and theirinterest in supporting, for commercial reasons, Christian expansionin the Arab-ruled space, is another factor to consider when trying toexplain the success ofthe idea ofthe crusade.

So, Pope Urban II moved by the appeal for aid from EmperorAlexios I Komnenos (r.1031-1118) at Constantinople, realized thenecessity of protecting Europe most practically by carrying the warinto the enemy's country. And with the broad view of a statesmanprobably that he foresaw the gain in authority that would accrue to thepapary from the leadership in a universal movement that would arousereligious enthusiasm and be conducted under the guidance of theChurch of Rome.3s The Crusaders managed to liberate vast territoriesin the Near East (Edessa, Antioch, Tripoli) includingJerusalem, whichwas conquered in 1099.

These conquests would establish the foundations of the Latinprincipalities of the Holy Land (the kingdom of Jerusalem, theprincipality of Antioch, the county of Tripoli, the counry of Edessa),

where models of \Testern feudalism previously unknown to theOrient, were applied. Confronted with the lack of coordination amongthe feudalists settled in the Orient, the land's protection was mainlyassured by the military monk orders (The Knights Hospitaller, theTemplars, and the Teutonic Knights). But Latin dominion was sooncontested by Muslims, who would achieve in the coming centuriessuccesses that led to the organization ofnew crusades.

A special mention deserves the Fourth Crusade (|ZOZ-O+), whichwas turned by the Venetians from its original goals, and ended withthe conquest of Constantinople: on its throne until 1261 ruled Latinemperors ('Western and Catholic).

The loss of \Testern possessions in Syria continued during the1 3th century and in l29l , the last point of Latin resistance, Acra was

ilr'II

<-: :.i : r -i o H-uuBqof:aIC/pllia/3:o.erpaur4,r'::'-':,:.-oruso) pluaurrpn1,, ur paqsrlqnd -: ::-':.Ji?.\ 'eruzrr1,(sue:1 Jo serJolrllat aq1:eqof iq urseq aqnueq alpplu eqlJo dew

sarlJrJ punoJSJepun aq] Jo ]ueurdolo^ap eql eJnssB ol suoqElndoduBIeroJ ot IBeddE or (10gI-968) drseudp pBdrv eq] Jo sBuDI ar{}

peurEJlsuoJ eJJoplJo.lv\ luerJuJnsur Jraql lnq uorSeJ eqlJo lJEd lseSJBIarll Jel\o IOol suerJESunH erll 'alnssard Jo sarJnluef, eaJql SurJnc

's8urlrJl ,.slsruerunq ot anp deur eqt uo utege peJeedde tr ueq-&serur] af,usssreueu aql [r] fuouaur uro{ paqsruE^ ErJEC Jo aruEu eql'EruEAIdsuEJJ aruEu eql ruo{aJaq \](spnlls suD4 vqe-I uI) s}seroJ er{}

puodaq puEI E a{q paleedde uor8eJ slqt - futunoJ Jraq} sruroJ r{rrq ^.

ureld dssEJB agl ur SursrEJ {f,ots Surop eraar orfia 'suBrJEBunH arl} roC'peuodsu"Jl aJa.{rr JaAIrs pue 'p1o8 'poorr,l 'tps :eruz,rydsuerl Jo seqf,rJ

er{} rPJE.a\4,q1nos PUE PJEl\4.}sa,{\4. 'sJe IJ eseql uO 'Jel\rJ Bzsrl eql olur

Suurrog pue EruEAIdsuEJI Jo neeleld IEJtuaf, aql ut SuEpur8rro sreruraqt Jo asJnoJ eql Suolt - sruJe Jo alJoJ dq ro 3uro3-dsra raglaqrrr-palllas pue BruouuEd ur paArJrE suErJBSunH aq] 'gJ g5g elEI aql uI

'a8en8uq pue aydoad uerueruod arl] patEaJJ .sAEIS

aqt dltueuruopaJd 'saldoad rLrotrr8nu aq] Surttlrurrsse dq ,uaqt ,oqm

'sueruoa-ocEq aqt olur pa8raur pue a8un8uel urlB.I aql uoos perdope

- sueluJao pue's]1a3'surroeqgo Surlsrsuoc - sluetrqEqur eql ?rlBCpalpr puE gO 90I uI suuruo1 aW dq paranbuoc se/r,r' qlrq^^, 'urop8ullUEIf,BC lualf,ue aql Jo Jaluef, aql ur pelunlrs sr BTuBAI[suBJI

lxalrroJ IBJrruouoJa puB IBJIrrIodoacerue,rl.(suurJJo puBI aql 'Z'I

'aldourluelsuo3 Jo sllelri arll lE eJe^\

$IrnI aqt uaq.&\ ua^e ((5€rI) aluerolc-ErErrec puB (vLZl) uod13oslrlunoJ) euro1 qty\{ uorun snor8rleJ pasnJeJ pue 'sur1e.I aql $urc3etuerutuaseJ ploq dpueuturrad pporrt s{aaJg ar{} 1}sBg put }sarlN er{}

uea^l]eg UIds alrsrJep aqt ot petnqlrluof, aueqVOZ1 ur aldourluElsuo3yo arnldec urle'I eqt qtr.{r\ ef,uo rlunoC aq} dllerlodsa put (septsnJf, eql'stuauoddo pcrtqod pue slrtaJeq ]surBBB Surrq8g ur osIE ]l pesn qllq^{'dreded aqt;o lesodsp aqt tE tuaunJlsur u? olur pauJnl ap?snJJ aqJ

'epEsnrD aqlJou8rs agl rapun tua..r\ adorng IBJluaJ pue uJalsefl ur srynl ueruoDoeqt qll^{ ralel rBaS cltpg eq} go sueSed aql qtlat. 'uredg ur sqerv eq}qry!\ sellleq aql rsnql 'sartld dlog aqr palnr oq.ira' asogt lsn[ ]ou'qapgur Jo pupl due qtrrr,r. a133nr1s eql ot adols s1r Surpualxa 'rLrolsrquJelselN Jo eJueuEruJad B surerueJ'lalau.oq'epesnr3 eq1'peranbuoc

: ; :, .;:.uotsrq) g3 ,(.rnluac rsl aql uI Erf,BC

jllvslul

Er, remxins a pennanence of \festernre sruggle with any kind of infidels,

[Io]v Places. Thus, the battles withezrs of the Baltic Sea, later with the

Cental Europe went under the sign

frument at the disposal of the papacy,

dnst heretics and political opponents.

Fourth once with the Latin capture ofrributed to the decisive split between

would permanent\ hold resentment

rcIigious union with Rome (Councils

xence (1439)) even when the Turks

fle.

I of TransylvaniaI economical context

.:. ;enter of the ancient Dacian

: lr ::e Romans in 106 CE and called

:-:-: c: Dacians, Celts, and Germans -e .:r. ;'nerged into the Daco-Romans,

:lr :: :a:on' peoples, predominantly the

rll- "nd language.

=:--;:: arrived in Pannonia and settled

:: c: arms - along the course of the

- :-a:eau of Transylvania and flowing:r1-e:s, rvestward and southward, the,r; :o1d, and silver were transPorted.

c::rg stock raising in the grassy plain

.:. :;:ron appeared like a land beYond'"i-:ereiiom the name Transylvania.

r:n :ni:norv till the Renaissance times

:.: j re to humanists'writings.

:s>-:3, rhe Hungarians took over the

e: ; -:- s uf fi cient workforce constrainedifr' S9o-1301) to appeal to foreign:.ol:rent of the underground riches

Map of the middle Danube basin by Johannes Honterus (1498-1549) -the territories of Transylvania, \Tallachia and Moldavia under the name DACIA- published in ,,Rudimenta Cosmographiae", Bragov, (tS+t) (https://commons.wikirnedia.org/wiki/FileJohann-Honterus_Septemcastrensis_de_Corona.jpg)

].d'r

'cr rr

W-l

Dacia in the lst century CE (histon maps.ro)

ro st?eJql qlr^\ PeJrBd ara^\ spuEruap

rpaa ! -Io lrrrds ,suoxBs aql Jo ]uoJJ uri:rurrd u?rqJEII?lN ar{} Jo suoJJa eq}

f ur,o-l oq,^^'auolqJ uErrIlEIIBlN eq] 01

: DJuasro,/\\ ue^e s?A\ uelqoJd eqJ

'uorlelnlads Lcuarrnr Surseercur

:uaCra sarlrf, uoxeS uEruEAI(su?rIJ suorlJ?suBJ] JoJ saf,uanbasuoJ

'-_\\ Jo uollenlB^aP PaJJoJua sIqI

rtr siT?-11 aql purqeq paretlaqs ,Juaruour

r'..rrEII?lN Jo auoJq] aql o] stuErurElf,

:ilrouE Surlurodde dq :o '(1 elsrpBIA-' ur patuer8 peq ',{:e8ung go Sury:: -roie:g uaal(]aq pelBnlrs) '$erp8pg

c-\\t -rraql Surzras sE qJns 'serlpuada:-:uroc uer.re8un11 panlB^ap aqt qtra:: a8ueqcxa ]q8u E parrnbar sacurrdsr'.or-.ard ;o rg8rerrr aql ot Surproccer :: petdacce ]ou se,la' eSeuroc penlelapr?y?g aqt ur Surpert uaq,l.r 1so1 daqrI Jql ol s?,^^ sauo -&\au JoJ surof, PIor paurEurer anp,r aSurqcxe rreq] elq/!\I :o uortrEJJ ar{l Jo uounururp 3 s?A\

r::P:1lP \ep eql uo luapuedap'durouocarl sr.orres p?r{ ilEJ slqt 'ZgrI ot gggI:uir1: tnq suror a>lrJls ppoc serur-rd

r :'.ir ra-\o oslu Iorluol peq dre8ung

_ -ue8ung;o 3ur;1 su saldeg-no(uy

I .o S0€I ur uorlJele eqr 3urrvro11o3-r r:norE Surtep uorwnlrs e) 'sarur:d

:::'j1111 aqt uaa.,rl.}aq 1ur1 a8epsse,r aqt

-- I :45 rll?lg arl] Pu? eqnuBC raaol::-rrrllp-N q8norqr spoo8 rraqt qtrrrr

:-i..:r:r sluPqtJaru ]pElsuoJ) aql gg€I:i.( ot .(trrorrd qlrrvr spoo8 Jraq] ilas'- : jo lsEal ]B ro; dols ol papueurep

erazra. erue,rldsuEJJ uJeqlnos ur epBJl Jraql Sursrcraxa sluErllJeru lEqlSurlepdrls [utuue5 w y4cat1adolg] aSalarrd tq8rr ayders lertrraruruof,aqt palurr8 eJea deql 'l:n1uac qtuaeilnoJ etp q 'qlnos eqt pue tseaeql uro{ Surruoc sa}noJ aper} eql uo pe}En}rs uor}rsod cr8ale:1s rraqluro{ Pe}lueueq Jeproq uErqtBIIElN erp JEeu palEnIS - lpE}suuBruraHpue tp"tsuory d1urcur ]nq ueqlJo IIV '[ereoSrq8rgl 8:nqsseqog pue

' [6aqag] qreqlrlt]hl ' [arrSpr6] soorg '[mqrg] rprrsuurur-rag ' [zrofurg]tp"tsuoJ) eJen. Eruelldsurrl uJeqtnos ur esaq] Jo ]ueuodturtsour eql 'slf,rJlsrp uoxEs oat aql puE (slepBlrl 0I tsBel ]E ere..!^.

aJaql spJE,{!\JaUE JI uara tua8tnquaqats sefi\'erue,rldsuerl JoJ arueuuerureC aW) aru*S uoxes ,ueles, aql q se.tr. ]sera]ur prcads y

is'ErlBplory pue ETTIJEIIEIN o1 'suerqledreD eq]Jar'o eleJ8rrue ol pepnap Jo (rusrf,rloglBJ ol peualuoc 'se8ap,urd:raq]dael o1 'ged raqlou? 'snJrts Jraql Jo paarrdap se,la salqou uerueruo5egt;o ued E ellq4\ 'af.fi$,roxr5 aql rc slztlwor uerre8unll eqt urqrl \pasredsrp aJeA{ ser}rledrcuud luertue Jreql pue 'slueseed ear; rosreuoruruof, Jo {uEr aql ol paper8uurtop eJe.&\ solqou ueruBruo1 eql'seuroldrp pdor ssassod rou prp oqlt lrrpqou uErueruod Ieuortrper]eqrSo sa8ap,urd aql passerddns '(ZS-SOEt) saldegSo drseudp no(uyr(\eu eql yo s8url eql uaqa '^Jn1uar qtueaurqt eql ilp dn perr-lasard

'qtrou eql ol Sarnurerey4l pue 'qlnos eqt ot Saieg puu 6e:p8pg ararr,r.

]uelrodurr ]soru aql qJrq \ Jo r [sarlrpdrour tdf sapzau4 pue sa]Dponaxoa

uBrusruou erp erue,rldsuerl uI palslxa eJeql rsaprlua aseqr aprsSuoly

[slaptlro ot JeJeJ a^^r areq ,.rrcqc ,leas, d1era1r1 ueaur

'rytzs pue aruUS eq1-)'tsBe eqt ol Wzs raplezs lg8ra pue ,eirrlsrg pur,ro6e:g 'sprrlsrp uoxBs ona] sE IIeArr sE ,quou pu? qlnos aql ol af.lruS

uoxEs ,ueles, eql 5e1uar eqt ur pue lsal4. er{l ol ,.d-ro1rrra1 pdor, uosloltluu uerrr8unll :uorleu qlea Jo seJluaf, allleJlsrurrupe pue pll1pn(se paluu8rsap serlrlua snorJ?A palrrodrocur pue (suerueruo1 aqr (qpasn ruJal JI BIS E) 'ponaroo ro 'a1np u dq pa1 sena aturloJd

".{J,r'aBen8uel Jrarlt ur

uastltDs - suoxes arueu aql 1oo1 .slsan8 qslualC, aseg] ,adorng uJalsueur sluauelDas uEruraC IIB roJ Iepour aqt orutrag qllqa ,3rnqep8e141;o

r.EI uoxes aqr Suurrollog 'uor8ar eql ur sertrJ tsJU eq] peqsrlqelsa pu?pelDas a:atr\'seuoz 3:nqruaxnl pue'a1eso141 raurqg aql uro{ stsruolof,r(suergtedre3 uJeqlnos aql) :auuory ureqtnos aql puaJep pue seururJaAIrs pu? plo8 eqr rroldxe 01 qloq Jog 'usrl{oqle3 01 uorsJeluor Jroqlnlle ,pazrlr-{r8u141, dlenpe eJe.&\ oqrrr. 'suerre8unH erll se ur8rro crr8n-ouurC oruEs arpJo uorlepdod r ,sra14ezg aq] paplas erazrr (suerqtefur3uJetsEe) Jertuo{ uJalsue aql uo 'snq1 's-raproq erlt Jo uoqcelord pue

ro st?eJql qlr^\ PeJrBd ara^\ spuEruap

rpaa ! -Io lrrrds ,suoxBs aql Jo ]uoJJ uri:rurrd u?rqJEII?lN ar{} Jo suoJJa eq}

f ur,o-l oq,^^'auolqJ uErrIlEIIBlN eq] 01

: DJuasro,/\\ ue^e s?A\ uelqoJd eqJ

'uorlelnlads Lcuarrnr Surseercur

:uaCra sarlrf, uoxeS uEruEAI(su?rIJ suorlJ?suBJ] JoJ saf,uanbasuoJ

'-_\\ Jo uollenlB^aP PaJJoJua sIqI

rtr siT?-11 aql purqeq paretlaqs ,Juaruour

r'..rrEII?lN Jo auoJq] aql o] stuErurElf,

:ilrouE Surlurodde dq :o '(1 elsrpBIA-' ur patuer8 peq ',{:e8ung go Sury:: -roie:g uaal(]aq pelBnlrs) '$erp8pg

c-\\t -rraql Surzras sE qJns 'serlpuada:-:uroc uer.re8un11 panlB^ap aqt qtra:: a8ueqcxa ]q8u E parrnbar sacurrdsr'.or-.ard ;o rg8rerrr aql ot Surproccer :: petdacce ]ou se,la' eSeuroc penlelapr?y?g aqt ur Surpert uaq,l.r 1so1 daqrI Jql ol s?,^^ sauo -&\au JoJ surof, PIor paurEurer anp,r aSurqcxe rreq] elq/!\I :o uortrEJJ ar{l Jo uounururp 3 s?A\

r::P:1lP \ep eql uo luapuedap'durouocarl sr.orres p?r{ ilEJ slqt 'ZgrI ot gggI:uir1: tnq suror a>lrJls ppoc serur-rd

r :'.ir ra-\o oslu Iorluol peq dre8ung

_ -ue8ung;o 3ur;1 su saldeg-no(uy

I .o S0€I ur uorlJele eqr 3urrvro11o3-r r:norE Surtep uorwnlrs e) 'sarur:d

:::'j1111 aqt uaa.,rl.}aq 1ur1 a8epsse,r aqt

-- I :45 rll?lg arl] Pu? eqnuBC raaol::-rrrllp-N q8norqr spoo8 rraqt qtrrrr

:-i..:r:r sluPqtJaru ]pElsuoJ) aql gg€I:i.( ot .(trrorrd qlrrvr spoo8 Jraq] ilas'- : jo lsEal ]B ro; dols ol papueurep

erazra. erue,rldsuEJJ uJeqlnos ur epBJl Jraql Sursrcraxa sluErllJeru lEqlSurlepdrls [utuue5 w y4cat1adolg] aSalarrd tq8rr ayders lertrraruruof,aqt palurr8 eJea deql 'l:n1uac qtuaeilnoJ etp q 'qlnos eqt pue tseaeql uro{ Surruoc sa}noJ aper} eql uo pe}En}rs uor}rsod cr8ale:1s rraqluro{ Pe}lueueq Jeproq uErqtBIIElN erp JEeu palEnIS - lpE}suuBruraHpue tp"tsuory d1urcur ]nq ueqlJo IIV '[ereoSrq8rgl 8:nqsseqog pue

' [6aqag] qreqlrlt]hl ' [arrSpr6] soorg '[mqrg] rprrsuurur-rag ' [zrofurg]tp"tsuoJ) eJen. Eruelldsurrl uJeqtnos ur esaq] Jo ]ueuodturtsour eql 'slf,rJlsrp uoxEs oat aql puE (slepBlrl 0I tsBel ]E ere..!^.

aJaql spJE,{!\JaUE JI uara tua8tnquaqats sefi\'erue,rldsuerl JoJ arueuuerureC aW) aru*S uoxes ,ueles, aql q se.tr. ]sera]ur prcads y

is'ErlBplory pue ETTIJEIIEIN o1 'suerqledreD eq]Jar'o eleJ8rrue ol pepnap Jo (rusrf,rloglBJ ol peualuoc 'se8ap,urd:raq]dael o1 'ged raqlou? 'snJrts Jraql Jo paarrdap se,la salqou uerueruo5egt;o ued E ellq4\ 'af.fi$,roxr5 aql rc slztlwor uerre8unll eqt urqrl \pasredsrp aJeA{ ser}rledrcuud luertue Jreql pue 'slueseed ear; rosreuoruruof, Jo {uEr aql ol paper8uurtop eJe.&\ solqou ueruBruo1 eql'seuroldrp pdor ssassod rou prp oqlt lrrpqou uErueruod Ieuortrper]eqrSo sa8ap,urd aql passerddns '(ZS-SOEt) saldegSo drseudp no(uyr(\eu eql yo s8url eql uaqa '^Jn1uar qtueaurqt eql ilp dn perr-lasard

'qtrou eql ol Sarnurerey4l pue 'qlnos eqt ot Saieg puu 6e:p8pg ararr,r.

]uelrodurr ]soru aql qJrq \ Jo r [sarlrpdrour tdf sapzau4 pue sa]Dponaxoa

uBrusruou erp erue,rldsuerl uI palslxa eJeql rsaprlua aseqr aprsSuoly

[slaptlro ot JeJeJ a^^r areq ,.rrcqc ,leas, d1era1r1 ueaur

'rytzs pue aruUS eq1-)'tsBe eqt ol Wzs raplezs lg8ra pue ,eirrlsrg pur,ro6e:g 'sprrlsrp uoxBs ona] sE IIeArr sE ,quou pu? qlnos aql ol af.lruS

uoxEs ,ueles, eql 5e1uar eqt ur pue lsal4. er{l ol ,.d-ro1rrra1 pdor, uosloltluu uerrr8unll :uorleu qlea Jo seJluaf, allleJlsrurrupe pue pll1pn(se paluu8rsap serlrlua snorJ?A palrrodrocur pue (suerueruo1 aqr (qpasn ruJal JI BIS E) 'ponaroo ro 'a1np u dq pa1 sena aturloJd

".{J,r'aBen8uel Jrarlt ur

uastltDs - suoxes arueu aql 1oo1 .slsan8 qslualC, aseg] ,adorng uJalsueur sluauelDas uEruraC IIB roJ Iepour aqt orutrag qllqa ,3rnqep8e141;o

r.EI uoxes aqr Suurrollog 'uor8ar eql ur sertrJ tsJU eq] peqsrlqelsa pu?pelDas a:atr\'seuoz 3:nqruaxnl pue'a1eso141 raurqg aql uro{ stsruolof,r(suergtedre3 uJeqlnos aql) :auuory ureqtnos aql puaJep pue seururJaAIrs pu? plo8 eqr rroldxe 01 qloq Jog 'usrl{oqle3 01 uorsJeluor Jroqlnlle ,pazrlr-{r8u141, dlenpe eJe.&\ oqrrr. 'suerre8unH erll se ur8rro crr8n-ouurC oruEs arpJo uorlepdod r ,sra14ezg aq] paplas erazrr (suerqtefur3uJetsEe) Jertuo{ uJalsue aql uo 'snq1 's-raproq erlt Jo uoqcelord pue

lr. i: the eastern frontier (eastern

sle -. a:opulation of the same Finno-rri. c r','ere actually'Magyarized' after

Fo: l.c--n io exploit the gold and silver

lrcl:r:: the southern CarPathians),

e. --c Lu,remburg zones, were settled-.:e :e .ion. Following the Saxon law: irlcre. tor all German settlements in-res:s :ook the name Saxons - Sachsen

-r-{. cr ',oreuod, (a Slavic term used

r:a::C r-anous entities designated as

es .-: each nation: Hungarian comitats

J,,r i:r the center; the'seven' Saxon

-. 'r,:-- ,s trvo Saxon districts, Bragov

--:i :.' :he east. [The Stihle and sztik,

l-e :::.; io citadels]

:r-:... :: Trans-vlvania the Romanianj:::-.' c: rvhrch the most importants,o-.::, =nd \laramures to the north,:-:r::.,, rvhen the kings of the new-S-

':pDressed the privileges of the

,r:lo :.c not possess royal diplomas.

*r-ri;.ced ro the rank of commoners:::.:]: orincipalities were dispersed

: :--. Srron Sfllftle. \rhile a part of theo; r-:-: status, another part, to keep

L.-.---..n. or decided to emigrate over

^u t:L Jd\ Id.

e si-! 3:i Sa-xon StrihJa (the German1--'''.-'..ris71, even if afterwards there--:- :1\o Saxon districts. The most

:e:ri Transvlvania were Kronstadt. Srcos -Ora$tie], Miihlbach [SebegJ,

"l o: :hem but mainly Kronstadt and

ie \\-allachian border benefitted fromoc :he trade routes coming from the

eer--h century, they were granted the

.e .S:;telrechf in German] stipulating::aie in southern Transylvania were

demanded to stop for at least one month in one of these cities andsell their goods with priority to Saxon burghers.3s Much more, in1358 the Kronstadt merchants received privileges of freely circulatingwith their goods through \Tallachia on the routes directing to thelower Danube and the Black Sea. This was a direct consequence ofthe vassalage link between the Hungarian crown and the \Tallachianprinces. (a situation dating around the formation of 'il7allachia andfollowing the election in 1308 of Charles Robert of the House ofAnjou-Naples as King of Hungary).3e

Hungaryhad control also over the minting of coins. The rVallachian

princes could strike coins but aligned with Hungarian ones. From1355 to 1452, this fact had serious consequences for the \Wallachian

economy, dependent on the devaluations of Hungarian coinage, whichwas a diminution of the fraction of precious metal (silver) in coins,while their exchange value remained the same. Therefore, exchangingold coins for new ones was to the detriment of \Wallachians. Also,they lost when trading in the Balkans and Ottoman Empire, as thedevalued coinage was not accepted at its face value but rather evaluatedaccording to the weight of precious metal. \Thenever \Wallachian

princes required a right exchange rate for their money, contrastingwith the devalued Hungarian coinage, the Crown had threatened withpenalties, such as seizing their two Transylvanian fiefs: Amlag andFlgirag, (situated between Brasov and Sibiu which Louis of Anjou,King of Hungary, had granted in 1365 to his \Tallachian vassal -Vladislav I), or by appointing another prince from the long queue ofclaimants to the throne of \Tallachia, who were watching for theirmoment, sheltered behind the walls of the Saxon cities.

This enforced devaluation of \(allachian coinage had dramaticconsequences for transactions operated abroadao while theTransylvanian Saxon cities experienced unparalleled prosperity,increasing currency speculation.

The problem was even worsened by political refugees - claimantsto the \Wallachian throne, who found protection in Transylvania. A1lthe efforts of the \Wallachian princes to obtain the expulsion failedin front ofthe Saxons'spirit offreedom and hospitality. Except thesedemands were paired with threats or adequate bribes.

[-------.,]l

(3d('7191-'snlaug-rueqe.rqy-dq-ruza1fuuer1:ayg/pf1rr,r/3ro'urpaurlr,r.r'suouruocTT:sdlq)(86- LZgl) snqelro ruegerqy .(q erqcullelg puc erue^IlsuerJ Jo deu aqa

\_- :anA#..Ir\

-,,F.4'

qi,

fn*4

i{"\'r I)I(1 35U,\r1 y{ i3r}. i ,-Lr!!SIs:rJl1i !rlljli J1'YrJ

1o '(

4ds$z,dat)(-,o

-'\, .Lo/\\ --AvtiE Tt./-L /a\ /

I,-9\

^a/'-'+--'S.{, --

\a%./L4t Y*-,-l4

A

-&*r--. tl

, l-- - .r&"E -- l''-tt"r' 5rtot

l-

t,' 'i

?rt

M \VALDT j,"'j,il

t:r[,&-.-rt' iT^ncil'to' / -t

- r->>",/')

'f*..>

t-

R-

ALACHIATpAr\ s . 'ltuifh-,

-:a'-4---. _fl.I$\--.

\- -qt* Chry,

*,

Lchia br {braham Ortelius (1527-98): ::: .' -, ::.ra-br'-Abraham-Ortelius,-16 1 z.jpg)

JLNF3--

_--u---, - ^+'o'lj

+l- i.H- )h