Psych 10 Holyoak Lec
-
Upload
eugenia-leo -
Category
Documents
-
view
228 -
download
0
Transcript of Psych 10 Holyoak Lec
-
8/3/2019 Psych 10 Holyoak Lec
1/27
Psychology 10: Holyoak 9/22/11
What is Psychology? How did it arise?
Psychology: The scientific study of the causes of thoughts, feelings,
and behavior.
o Uses the scientific method to find causes
o Why the interest in causes?
Why do people do what they do (good, bad, or weird)?
If we know causes, we can change behavior
Treatment
Therapy
Causes: Levels of explanation
o Genetic mechanism: behavior genetics
o Neural mechanism: neuroscience
o
Behavioral processes: learning, cognitive
, developmental , social
o Evolutionary function: comparative , evolutionary
o Each level has different ways of explaining the nature of
something.
E.g. Observation: I want to go to In-n-Out. What caused that
behavior?
o How long has it been since I ate? (Learning)
o Stomach Load/Hormonal Signals (Neuroscience) Temporary
o I want to talk to friends (Social) Influences
o Im a human not a termite (Behavior genetics, comparative)
o Eating gives us energy to reproduce (evolutionary)
-
8/3/2019 Psych 10 Holyoak Lec
2/27
o Im too old for a bottle and too young for gourmet food
(developmental) PI
o I ate at In-n-Out in the past and it was good (learning,
cognitive)
o When I ate at In-n-Out in the past, my brain releaseddopamine (neuroscience)
o I ate McDonalds in the past and got ill (learning)
Three kinds of influences:
o Temporary: brain and glands respond to current state
(Motivation, Emotion, & Mood)
o Permanent/Persistent: experience changes behavior, brain
responds differently (Learning & Memory)
o Heredity: gene expression (Genes: DNA)
E.g. When a experiencing a trauma:
o Short-term changes in behavior: Changes in hormonal
responses, brain chemistry, environmental cues, genetic
make-up
o Learning/Memory Formation, Gene Expression
o Which both can lead to long-term changes in behavior: Bad
memories, inability to deal with new stress
o Which can ultimately lead to Post-traumatic stress disorder
(PTSD)o From there: Clinical
Methods of Psychology
Opinion
o Nonscientific view
o Not based on observation
o Not systematic
o Two conflicting opinions can be valid
Fact
-
8/3/2019 Psych 10 Holyoak Lec
3/27
o Verifiable
o Two people can agree that a certain event happened a certain
way
o Can get blurred but in science must make sure that facts are
recorded the way they areo One bit of information
o One objective observation
Hypothesis
o Based on what is observed
o Leads to prediction
o Can be changed
o A testable idea or proposal (leads to a prediction about a fact)
o E.g. the chicken and the egg theory
Theory
o Gives explanation
o Generates more hypothesis
o Leads to new facts
o A set of interrelated assumptions
o Organizes a set of facts giving them a common explanation
o Generates hypotheses and predicts new facts
o Judged by their usefulness, generality, and parsimony
o E.g. simple theory explains a lot Example:
-
8/3/2019 Psych 10 Holyoak Lec
4/27
o Bad vs. Good driver
Find the correlation (relationship) between drivers who
talk and non talking
While the data may show that good drivers are usually
those who do not talk on the phone it does not meanthat is the case for everyone. More info is needed.
o Experiment
Independent variable
Avoid confounds
To make sure that it does not prefer one group
over the other.
Dependent variable
Objective
Reliable
Valid make a reasonable inference
Selection of subjects/participants
Random (representative sample)
Although it may seem that random is
unorganized, it is to make sure that the sample
group is representative of all group types.
o Theory
Complex activities require attention (cant attend toeverything at once)
Attention is limited
Divided attention (less focus) compromises performance
Psychologists have found that memory encoding is
especially compromised by multitasking (multitasking
have consequences)
How did Psychology get to where it is now?
Everyone thinks they are psychologists that they know the causes
of their behavior.
-
8/3/2019 Psych 10 Holyoak Lec
5/27
o Intuitive approach (not scientific method)
o We do what we do according to our own free will. (We decide
what to do based on reflecting on past performances).
o Dualism: mind and body separate and independent. (We
think we are our consciousness.) Rationalism: We do what we do base on our ability to reason.
(Based on free will)
Instinct: We do things because thats how we are. (natural
born this way :P)
Humans vs. Animals?
o Social, physical, mental, religious views of how we are
different
o Challenges:
Behavioral and neural evidence
Darwins theory
Philosophical roots (and routes to) Psychology
Rene Descartes
o A duelist
o Theres the mind and the body are in parallel but still
separate parts
o Thought animals are completely different.
o Thought the pineal gland was the center Pineal gland is what makes jet lag. It can tell when it is
day or night, which is why Descartes called it the third
eye. It also produces melatonin.
o Led to the 1st experiment to see how the mind and the brain
could be connected
John Locke
o Empiricism
Tabula Rasa
-
8/3/2019 Psych 10 Holyoak Lec
6/27
Born as an innocent baby knowing nothing at all
Gain knowledge through experience and ideas
James Mill
o Materialist
o Mind and matter are oneo Continuity of humans and other humans (said that were just
like animals)
o Were just a type of machine
Physiological roots (and routes to) Psychology
Rene Descartes
Luigi Galvani
o Physiologist
o Compared neurons/nerves with electricity
o Experiment w/ frog legs
His assistant touched the nerve of the frog legs with an
electrical current, which made the frog leg twitch.
Johannes Mller
o Different nerves/pathways (doctrine of specific nerve
energies)
o Experiment: pushed at his eye led to the conclusion of
physical and visual response
It is not the nerve but it sends current to a certain partof the brain that makes the visualization
Pierre Flourens
o Start experimental brain lesions (ablations) on animals
To investigate localizationism, i.e., whether different
parts of the brain had different functions
-
8/3/2019 Psych 10 Holyoak Lec
7/27
Paul Broca
o How brain injuries create different responses
What a person can do or cannot do after the injury
o Brocas Area in the brain speech production
Hermann von Helmholtzo Theory of color vision
3 different kinds of cells on certain wavelengths
The First Psychologist:
The German Wave
o Muller and Helmholtz led to Wilhelm Wundt (1879)-
Heildelberg, Germany
Structuralism: Psychology = science of immediate
experience
Goal: Describe the elements of perceptual experience
o Max Wertheimer Gestalt Psychology
A theory of mind and brain positing; the operational
principle of Gestalt is that the brain is holistic, parallel,
and analog, with self-organizing tendencies
o Sigmund Freud
Unconscious causes of complex actions and personality
Therapeutic
Had minimal influence in psychology today Introduced cocaine as a medical treatment
American Revolution
o William James (1842- 1910)
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Holismhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Holism -
8/3/2019 Psych 10 Holyoak Lec
8/27
Wrote Principles of Psychology
Functionalism: mental life and behavior is an
adaptation to environment
Divisions of memory
Attention Emotion
Cognitive Psychology
The Tao of Psychology (Tao: true nature of world/ doctrine/principles
Structures:
o Wundt
o Representation
o Brain areas
o Hippocampus
o Neurons
Function:
o James
o Processes
o Cognitive operations
o Memory
o Activation
Structures have some function and function have some type of
structureExamples of Introspective Report
-
8/3/2019 Psych 10 Holyoak Lec
9/27
Wanted to understand immediate experience
Apple
o Cold, crisp, sweet
Meaning
o I see meaning as the blue-grey tip of a kind of scoop, whichhas a bit of yellow above it, and which is just digging into a
dark mass of what appears to be plastic material.
Titchener (Wundts student), of Cornell Univ.
Wundt thinks knowledge are basically mental imagery. Every
thought is closely tied with concrete images; even abstract word
meaning
Problems with Introspection
o Poor agreement between subjects
o Most mental operations outside awareness
o Process might change observed operations
o Inadequacies of language
Difficulties led to quest for more objective approaches:
Behaviorism
Might have the same visual representation but
different language
Classical Conditioning Experiment
Ivan Pavlov (1849-1936)o His laboratory study was with dogs
More objective
o Conditioning of dogs
Before dogs doesnt salivate when bell rings
-
8/3/2019 Psych 10 Holyoak Lec
10/27
After when bell rings without food, dogs will still salivate
Association of food with an inanimate object
o Foundation for behaviorism
American Behaviorism (1913-1957)
John Watson (1878-1958)o 1930-published Behaviorism
o "Give me a dozen healthy infants, well-formed, and my own
specified world to bring them up in and I'll guarantee to take
any one at random and train him to become any type of
specialist I might select--doctor, lawyer, artist, merchant-
chief, and, yes, even beggarman and thief, regardless of his
talents, penchants, tendencies, abilities, vocations, and race
of his ancestors. I am going beyond my facts and I admit it,
but so have the advocates of the contrary and they have
been doing it for many thousands of years."
Think that he can take anyone and make them into
anything that he wants with training
BF Skinner (1904-1990)
o The Behavior of Organism
o Skinner box is a chamber that contains a bar or key that an
animal can press or manipulate in order to obtain food or
water as a type of reinforcement. The Skinner box also had adevice that recorded each response provided by the animal as
well as the unique schedule of reinforcement that the animal
was assigned.
Using the device researchers could carefully study
behavior in a very controlled environment.
Could be used to determine which schedule of
reinforcement led to the highest rate of response in the
study subjects.
Cognitive Revolution (1950-60s)
Noam Chomsky
o Modern linguistics
o Critique of Skinner
Herbert Simon
o One of the founder of Artificial Intelligence
http://psychology.about.com/od/behavioralpsychology/a/schedules.htmhttp://psychology.about.com/od/behavioralpsychology/a/schedules.htm -
8/3/2019 Psych 10 Holyoak Lec
11/27
o Human problem solving
Donald Broadbent
o Limited capacity
o Human attention
George Millero Short-term vs. long-term memory
21st Century Integrating Mind and Brain
All cognitive processes have a neural basis. Different area of brain
are active during different cognitive actions. Use different
techniques of brain imaging to localize areas in brain associated
with different cognitive functions.
Mind over body?
o Placebo effect
Influence of a substance or procedure due to receiving
it, even though substance/procedure itself has no effect
Effect is due to persons belief
Negative placebo (e.g., voodoo)
How is this possible?
If people believe something to work or they have
something their body will produce the effects as if
it is actually supposed to happen.
o How the brain responds when we do things Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI)
Can use virtual reality to reduce pain
How do we ever know that someone is conscious?
The limits of consciousness are hard to define satisfactorily, and
we can only infer the self-awareness of others by their appearance
and their acts. - Plum & Posner
Principle ofrevealed consciousness: Voluntary (i.e., non-
reflexive) behavior is taken torevealthe presence of
consciousness.
Conscious can be revealed because we can do things
-
8/3/2019 Psych 10 Holyoak Lec
12/27
In other words, since we dont have access to measuring
consciousness directly, we rely on behavioral indications of
consciousness, or a principle of revealed consciousness, by which
the presence of non-reflexive behavior is taken to reveal the
presence of consciousness
Assessing consciousness in brain-injury patients
Detailed patient history (including structural MRI).
Repeated daily observation ofspontaneous and elicitedbehavior
using standardized (albeit subjective) assessments:
o i. Sustained, reproducible, purposeful, or voluntary response
to visual, auditory, tactile or noxious stimuli
o ii. Language comprehension or expression.
o iii. Awareness of self or the environment
If any evidence is found of i, ii or iii then the patient is diagnosed
MCS.
Ifno evidence is found of i, ii and iii then the patient is diagnosed
VS.
Imaging Consciousness
-
8/3/2019 Psych 10 Holyoak Lec
13/27
If we can see the neural signature of imagining playing tennis
(motor imagery) and imagining walking around the rooms of ones
home(Spatial imagery), we can turn this into a code for yes and
no?
This would allow patients who cannot produce any behavioraloutput to:
o (1) Prove they are conscious
o (2) Communicate with their environment.
While a persons brain is working, they cant response normally.
E.g. A patient had been diagnosed VS (i.e., unconscious) for 5
years. Yet by looking into his brain he could (1) show volitional
behavior, and (2) correctly respond to 5 out of 6 autobiographical
questions.
-
8/3/2019 Psych 10 Holyoak Lec
14/27
The Biology of the Mind 29/09/2011 15:37:00
Cortex
Is the reality check part of the brain
Connect senses
Thinking cap
Each neuron have a job Neurons make networks among cells
Neural Communications
Brain and nervous systems is incredibly complicated
The individual neurons are small simple things
o They either turn on or off
o Based on how they interact with each other
Neurons either excite or inhibit
o
If only: Excite will blow up
Inhibit shut everything down
o Must have a balance
Motor areas voluntary motion and reflexes
Sensory areas the 5 senses
Association areas sensory and memory
Nervous system is electrical
Basic neural processing is similar in humans and in other animals.
-
8/3/2019 Psych 10 Holyoak Lec
15/27
Note similarities in the above brain regions between the rat, cat,
chimpanzee, and humans, which are all engaged in information
processing. But association areas are larger in humans.
The bodys information system is built from billions of
interconnected cells called neurons.Neurons
A nerve cell, or a neuron, consists of many different parts.
Parts of a neuron:
o Cell Body: Life support center of the neuron.
Keeps it alive
Most of our energy is used by our brain
o Dendrites: Branching extensions at the cell body. Receive
messages from other neurons.
Receiving ends, connect to the synapses
o Axon: Long single extension of a neuron, covered with myelin
[MY-uh-lin] sheath to insulate and speed up messages
through neurons.
o Terminal Branches of axon: Branched endings of an axon that
transmit messages to other neurons.
Have a threshold (basically all or nothing)
o Each neuron receives excitatory and inhibitory signals from
many neurons. When the excitatory signals minus theinhibitory signals exceed a minimum intensity (threshold) the
neuron fires an action potential.
Action Potential
o A neural impulse. A brief electrical charge that travels down
an axon and is generated by the movement of positively
charged atoms (ions) in and out of channels in the axons
membrane.
o Properties:
All-or-None Response: A strong stimulus can trigger
more neurons to fire, and to fire more often, but it does
not affect the action potentials strength or speed.
Intensity of an action potential remains the same
throughout the length of the axon.
Synapse:
-
8/3/2019 Psych 10 Holyoak Lec
16/27
o Synapse [SIN-aps] a junction between the axon tip of the
sending neuron and the dendrite or cell body of the receiving
neuron. This tiny gap is called the synaptic gap or cleft.
-
8/3/2019 Psych 10 Holyoak Lec
17/27
Neurotransmitter:
o Neurotransmitters (chemicals) released from the sending
neuron travel across the synapse and bind to receptor sites
on the receiving neuron, thereby influencing it to generate an
action potential.o One neurotransmitter can influence many different brain
areas
o Reuptake:
Pills such as those for depression slow the reuptake
Neurotransmitters in the synapse are reabsorbed into
the sending neurons through the process ofreuptake.
This process applies the brakes on neurotransmitter
action.
How Neurotransmitter Influence Us
Serotonin pathways are involved with mood regulation.
Dopamine Pathways
o Dopamine pathways are involved with diseases such as
schizophrenia and Parkinsons disease.
o Contribute to learning and motion
Lock and Key Mechanisms
-
8/3/2019 Psych 10 Holyoak Lec
18/27
o Neurotransmitters bind to the receptors of the receiving
neuron in a key-lock mechanism.
o Agonists mimics neurotransmitter
o Antagonists blocks neurotransmitter
Psychoactive Drugs Agonists mimic transmitter at receptor
o Domoic acid (contaminated shellfish), nicotine, propofol
(Michael Jackson)
Antagonists block the transmitter at receptor
o botox
Modulators alter (up or down) the effect of transmitter at its
receptor
o alcohol
Re-uptake Inhibitors increase effect of transmitters
-
8/3/2019 Psych 10 Holyoak Lec
19/27
Transmitter Function Treatment Illegal Drugs
Serotonin Sleep, mood Depression w/SSRIs such as
prozac
Lysergic aciddiethylamide
(LSD), ecstasy
Norepinephrine Blood pressure,
attention
hypertension-
propranolol,ADHD-ritalin
Apparently not
Dopamine Movement,pleasure (reward)
Parkinsons (L-Dopa),
Schizophrenia(thorazine,
haldol)
Cocaine,amphetamine
Endogenous
Opioidsendorphin,
enkephalin
Regulation of pain Pain control after
injury or disease(morphine,
vicodin)
Heroin
-
8/3/2019 Psych 10 Holyoak Lec
20/27
Anandamide Regulation of
neurotransmission
Nausea from
chemotherapy,
inflammatorydiseases
Marijuana
-
8/3/2019 Psych 10 Holyoak Lec
21/27
Example drug effect: ecstasy (an amphetamine) -- primarily
influences serotonin system
o Acute effects:
Heightened perceptions
Reduced appetite Stimulation
Elevated mood
o Adverse effects:
Clouded thinking
Hyperthermia
Disturbed behavior
Jaw clenching
o Life threatening effects:
Hyperthermia
Arrthymias
Renal failure
Nervous Systems
Nervous System: Consists of all the nerve cells. It is the bodys
speedy, electrochemical communication system.
Central Nervous System (CNS): the brain and spinal cord.
o The Brain and Neural Networks:
Interconnected neurons form networks in the brain.Theses networks are complex and modify with growth
and experience.
o The Spinal Cord and Reflexes:
Reflexes often only include the spinal cord so for
example a finger is getting burned, the finger will reflex
back before the info reaches the brain.
o The Endocrine System:
The Endocrine System is the bodys slow chemical
communication system. Communication is carried out
by hormones synthesized by a set of glands.
Hormones:
-
8/3/2019 Psych 10 Holyoak Lec
22/27
Hormones are chemicals synthesized by the
endocrine glands that are secreted in the
bloodstream. Hormones affect the brain and many
other tissues of the body.
For example, epinephrine (adrenaline)increases heart rate, blood pressure, blood
sugar, and feelings of excitement during
emergency situations.
The Pituitary Gland:
Is called the master gland. The anterior pituitary
lobe releases hormones that regulate other
glands. The posterior lobe regulates water and
salt balance.
Peripheral Nervous System (PNS): the sensory and motor neurons
that connect the central nervous system (CNS) to the rest of the
body.
o Somatic Nervous System: The division of the peripheral
nervous system that controls the bodys skeletal muscles.
o Autonomic Nervous System: Part of the PNS that controls the
glands and other muscles.
Sympathetic Nervous System: Division of the ANS that
arouses the body, mobilizing its energy in stressfulsituations. (flight or fight)
Parasympathetic Nervous System: Division of the ANS
that calms the body, conserving its energy. (rest and
digest)
o The Nerves:
Nerves consist of neural cables containing many
axons. They are part of the peripheral nervous system
and connect muscles, glands, and sense organs to the
central nervous system.
The Brain
A brain lesion experimentally destroys brain tissue to study animal
behaviors after such destruction.
Techniques to study the brain:
o Clinical observation:
-
8/3/2019 Psych 10 Holyoak Lec
23/27
Clinical observations have shed light on a number of
brain disorders. Alterations in brain morphology due to
neurological and psychiatric diseases are catalogued.
o Electroencephalogram (EEG):
An amplified recording of the electrical waves sweepingacross the brains surface, measured by electrodes
placed on the scalp.
o PET Scan:
PET (positron emission tomography) scan is a visual
display of brain activity that detects a radioactive form
of glucose while the brain performs a given task.
o MRI Scan:
MRI (magnetic resonance imaging) uses magnetic fields
related to blood flow to produce computer-generated
images that distinguish among different types of brain
tissue. Top images show ventricular enlargement in a
schizophrenic patient. Bottom image shows brain
regions when a participants lies (functionalMRI, or
fMRI).
Older Brain Structures:
o The Brainstem is the oldest part of the brain, beginning where
the spinal cord swells and enters the skull. It is responsiblefor automatic survival functions.
The Medulla [muh-DUL-uh] is the base of the brainstem
that controls heartbeat and breathing.
The Thalamus [THAL-uh-muss] is the brains sensory
switchboard, located on top of the brainstem. It directs
messages to the sensory areas in the cortex and
transmits replies to the cerebellum and medulla.
Reticular Formation is a nerve network in the brainstem
that plays an important role in controlling arousal.
o Cerebellum
The little brain attached to the rear of the brainstem.
It helps coordinate voluntary movements and balance.
o The Limbic System:
-
8/3/2019 Psych 10 Holyoak Lec
24/27
The Limbic System is a doughnut-shaped system of
neural structures at the border of the brainstem and
cerebrum, associated with emotions such as fear,
aggression and drives for food and sex. It includes the
hippocampus, amygdala, and hypothalamus. The Amygdala [ah-MIG-dah-la] consists of two
lima bean-sized neural clusters linked to the
emotions of fear and anger.
The Hypothalamus lies below (hypo) the
thalamus. It directs several maintenance
activities like eating, drinking, body temperature,
and control of emotions. It helps govern the
endocrine system via the pituitary gland.
Reward Center:
Rats cross an electrified grid for self-stimulation
when electrodes are placed in the reward
(hypothalamus) center (top picture). When the
limbic system is manipulated, a rat will navigate
fields or climb up a tree (bottom picture).
The Cerebral Cortex:
o A big part of the brain
o The intricate fabric of interconnected neural cells that coversthe cerebral hemispheres. It is the bodys ultimate control
and information processing center.
o Structure of the Cortex:
Each brain hemisphere is divided into four lobes that
are separated by prominent fissures. These lobes are
the frontal lobe (forehead), parietal lobe (top to rear
head), occipital lobe (back head) and temporal lobe
(side of head).
o Functions of the cortex:
The Motor Cortex is the area at the rear of the frontal
lobes that control voluntary movements. The Sensory
Cortex (parietal cortex) receives information from skin
surface and sense organs.
-
8/3/2019 Psych 10 Holyoak Lec
25/27
Visual Function: A functional MRI scan shows the
visual cortex is active as the subject looks at
faces.
Auditory Function: A functional MRI scans shows
the auditory cortex is active in patients whohallucinate.
Association Areas: More intelligent animals have
increased uncommitted or association areas of
the cortex.
o Language:
Aphasia is an impairment of language, usually caused
by left hemisphere damage either to Brocas area
(impaired speaking) or to Wernickes area (impaired
understanding).
o Specialization and Integration
Brain activity when hearing, seeing, or speaking words
o Why is it shaped the way that its shaped?
To increase surface area in a way so that a baby can be
born
Our Divided Brain
o The human brain is divided into two hemispheres.
o The left hemisphere (at least in right-handed people) isprimarily responsible reading, writing, speaking,
mathematics, and comprehension skills. It used to be termed
the dominant brain.
The Brains Plasticity
o The brain is sculpted by our genes but also by our
experiences.
o Plasticity refers to the brains ability to modify itself after
some types of injury or illness.
o Young children who lose an entire hemisphere (left or right)
may grow with near-normal cognitive abilities
o But children who lose their frontal cortex (front of the brain)
show major impairments in later life.
Splitting the Brain:
-
8/3/2019 Psych 10 Holyoak Lec
26/27
o A procedure in which the two hemispheres of the brain are
isolated by cutting the connecting fibers (mainly those of the
corpus callosum) between them.
o Split brain patients:
With the corpus callosum severed, objects (apple)presented in the right visual field can be named.
Objects (pencil) in the left visual field cannot.
-
8/3/2019 Psych 10 Holyoak Lec
27/27
29/09/2011 15:37:00