PROTECTING THE OZONE LAYER - CETESB€¦ · Protection of the Ozone Layer 13 Figure 4 The Ozone...

United Nations Development ProgrammeWisma UN, Block C, Kompleks Pejabat Damansara Jalan Dungun, Damansara Heights, 50490 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia.

Tel: 03 2095 9122 Fax: 03 2095 2870 www.undp.org.my

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Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment, Malaysia

P R O T E C T I N G T H E

O Z O N E L A Y E RM A L AY S I A I M P L E M E N T I N G T H E M O N T R E A L P R O T O C O L


O Z O N E L A Y E RM A L A Y S I A I M P L E M E N T I N G T H E M O N T R E A L P R O T O C O L


Published by the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP), Malaysia.

© UNDP. All rights reserved.

First published February 2007.

ISBN 983-40995-9-2

United Nations Development ProgrammeWisma UN, Block C, Kompleks Pejabat Damansara,Jalan Dungun, Damansara Heights, 50490 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia.www.undp.org.my

A catalogue record for this book is available from the Library of UNDP.

The contents may be freely reproduced for non-commercial purposes with attribution to thecopyright holders.

Maps are not authoritative on boundaries.

Design: Thumb-Print Studio Sdn Bhd.

The energy-intensive lifestyle of those living in developed countries is now being adopted among rapidly

developing Asian countries. Industrialization and modernization are spreading everywhere, at differing

paces and with different consequences. Alongside increased GDP, reduced poverty, and rising

inequality, there is increasing fossil fuel use, natural resource depletion, and loss of biodiversity. This means

increasing emissions from automobiles and factories, resulting in global warming and climate change.

Given the increased scale of global economic activity, international trade is a major driver of environmental

change. Advancing economic growth and modernization require intensifying the use of finite natural

resources and substances harmful to the environment leading to ecological disequilibrium.

Although the ozone is a very small part of our atmosphere, its presence is vital to human well-being. It

provides a protective shield that absorbs some of the potentially harmful ultraviolet (UV) radiation from the

sun that can cause skin cancer and damage vegetation. In the 1970s, scientists discovered significant

levels of ozone depletion in the stratosphere, producing a phenomenon commonly known as the ‘Ozone

Hole’. By the 1990s, the total ozone was less than half its value during the 1970s and this depletion has

continued until today.

In response to the threat to the ozone, in 1987 the governments of the world agreed to the United

Nations Montreal Protocol as a means to address global environmental challenges. Malaysia’s involvement

with the Montreal Protocol began as early as 1987 when the country was invited to attend the Conference

of Plenipotentiaries on the Protocol on Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) at the Vienna Convention for the

Protection of the Ozone Layer, which was held in Montreal. Malaysia, recognizing the importance of the

Conference, particularly with regard to its socio-economic implications, responded with an outline of its

future environmental strategies and action plans, and subsequently ratified the Vienna Convention and the

Montreal Protocol on 29 August 1989.

Malaysia’s commitment to the Protocol was further demonstrated when the Public Services Department

set up an Ozone Protection Section (OPS) under the Department of Environment in January 1997. The OPS

serves as the national focal point and one-stop agency for coordinating, monitoring, and implementing all of

the Montreal Protocol Ozone-Depleting Substances (ODS) phase-out activities. Since ratification, the

Government has formulated policies and strategies to restrict and limit the use of ODS, and it closely

monitors the importation and consumption of controlled substances. It also promotes the use of non-ODS

substitutes and alternatives in existing industries.

Malaysia’s success in implementing the Montreal Protocol can be seen both in declining imports and

consumption of CFCs, from 3,442 metric tonnes in 1995 to 662 metric tonnes in 2005, and in the

institutional framework, particularly the establishment of the Ozone Protection Section. Globally, the Montreal

Protocol is seen as one of the most successful International Conventions and Malaysia has made substantial

progress in implementing the Protocol.

iii

F o r e w o r d

iv

This publication is the third in a series that reports on UNDP Malaysia’s work in the

energy and environment practice area. The series of publications is available through

UNDP’s website, http://www.undp.org.my.

I would like to thank the Multilateral Fund for the Implementation of the Montreal Protocol

for funding the ODS projects. I would also like to thank the UNDP Montreal Protocol Unit

in New York, and the Ozone Unit, Department of Environment, in the Ministry of Natural

Resources and Environment, for their guidance and support. Special thanks and

appreciation are extended to members of the Study Team for their hard work in putting this

publication together. I hope that it will be widely read and will help to increase awareness

of the critical importance of good environmental management. It is hoped that other

countries may learn from Malaysia’s experiences, and that greater efforts and commitment

will be shown towards reducing the use of ODS.

Richard Leete Ph.D

Resident Representative

United Nations Development Programme

Malaysia, Singapore and Brunei Darussalam

C o n t e n t s

Foreword

Boxes, Tables, Figures, and Map

Abbreviations

Stakeholders

The Issue: Preventing Continued Ozone DepletionWhat is Ozone?The Ozone HoleMeasuring Ozone in the AtmosphereHow Human Activities Deplete the Ozone LayerWhy is Ozone Depletion a Threat?Conserving the Ozone Layer

International Development of the Montreal ProtocolThe Vienna Convention for the Protection of the Ozone LayerThe Montreal Protocol on Substances That Deplete the

Ozone LayerThe Ozone Secretariat of the United Nations Environment

ProgrammeThe Multilateral Fund for the Implementation of the Montreal

Protocol

Malaysia’s Ratification and Implementation of the Montreal Protocol

Ratification of the Montreal Protocol in 1989The Montreal Protocol: Working Towards an MDGEstablishing an Institutional Framework Importation and Consumption of Ozone-Depleting Substances

Adoption of Control Measures and National Monitoring

Accomplishments of Montreal Protocol MeasuresImplemented by UNDP

Phase-Out Experience in Small to Medium-Sized EnterprisesHalonsChlorofluorocarbonsMethyl Bromide

iii

vii

viii

ix

1123345

66

7

9

10

111112121516

1919191923

1

C o n t e n t s

Issues and Challenges in Implementing the MontrealProtocol

Difficulties with Halon Phase-Out ProjectsMonitoring Disposal of Redundant and Phased-Out

Substances and EquipmentConsolidating Structures and Achievements

Safeguarding the Ozone Layer and the GlobalClimate SystemPhasing Out Transitional Alternatives to Ozone-Depleting

SubstancesThe Scientific Situation in 2006The Kyoto Protocol

Sources of InformationPublicationsInternet

Previous Reports in this UNDP Series

2727

2728

30

303133

353536

37

B o x e s , Ta b l e s , F i g u r e s , a n d M a p

vii

B o x e sBox 1 The Rationale for the Montreal Protocol 7

Box 2 A Historic Achievement of International Cooperation 8

T a b l e sTable 1 Ultraviolet Radiation 4

Table 2 Implementation Schedule for Control Measures Under the Montreal Protocol 8

Table 3 Malaysia’s Importation and Consumption of CFCs, 1995–2010 16

Table 4 Malaysia’s Importation and Consumption of Methyl Bromide, 1990–2005 23

Table 5 Uses of Methyl Bromide in Malaysia, 2002–2005 25

Table 6 Non-Quarantine and Pre-Shipment (Non-QPS) Use of Methyl 26Bromide in Malaysia, 2002–2005

Table 7 Examples of Alternatives to the Use of Methyl Bromide 26

F i g u r e sFigure 1 The Dobson Unit 2

Figure 2 How Oxygen Molecules Split Apart 3

Figure 3 Committees Established as Part of Malaysia’s Institutional Framework for the Protection of the Ozone Layer 13

Figure 4 The Ozone Protection Section (OPS), Department of Environment 14

Figure 5 Trends in Malaysia’s CFC Consumption, 1995–2010 17

Figure 6 Malaysia’s Importation and Consumption of Methyl Bromide, 1990–2005 24

Figure 7 The Ozone Hole, September 2006, Dobson Units 31

Figure 8 Greenhouse Gases Identified by the Kyoto Protocol 34

M a pMap 1 Malaysia in South-East Asia 11

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A b b r e v i a t i o n s

ASHRAE American Society of Heating,

Refrigerating and Air Conditioning

Engineers

CETEC Centre for Environmental Technology

CFC Chlorofluorocarbon

FMCA Federation of Malaysian Consumers

Association

FMM Federation of Malaysian Manufacturers

FRIM Forest Research Institution of Malaysia

HCFC Hydrochlorofluorocarbon

HFC Hydrofluorocarbon

IPCC Intergovernmental Panel on

Climate Change

LCD Liquid Carbon Dioxide

LIA Low Index Additive

MAC Mobile Air Conditioner

MACRA Malaysian Air Conditioning and

Refrigerating Association

MDG Millennium Development Goal

MEA Multilateral Environmental Agreements

MIDA Malaysian Industrial Development

Authority

MITI Ministry of International Trade

and Industry

MLF Multilateral Fund

MNRE Ministry of Natural Resources

and Environment

MOSTE Ministry of Science, Technology,

and Environment

NCFCP National CFC Phase-Out Plan

NGO Non-Governmental Organization

NOU National Ozone Unit

NSC National Steering Committee

ODP Ozone Depletion Potential

ODS Ozone-Depleting Substances

OPS Ozone Protection Section

(of the Department of Environment)

PCC Panel on Climate Change

PFC Perfluorocarbons

PIC Prior Informal Consent

PMU Project Management Unit

(of the Department of Environment)

QPS Quarantine and Pre-Shipment

SEAP South-East Asia and Pacific

SIRIM Standard and Industrial Research Institute

of Malaysia

SME Small and Medium-Sized Enterprises

TEAP Technology and Economic Assessment

Panel (of UNEP)

UNDP United Nations Development Programme

UNEP United Nations Environment Programme

UNFCCC United Nations Framework Convention on

Climate Change

UNIDO United Nations Industrial Development

Organization

UV Ultraviolet

UVA/UVB/ Types of Ultraviolet Radiation (by wavelength)

UVC

WB World Bank

WMO World Meteorological Organization

I n s t i t u t i o n a l S t a k e h o l d e r sCustoms DepartmentDepartment of Agriculture• Crop Protection Division• Pesticides BoardDepartment of Environment, Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment• Ozone Protection Section (OPS)Department of StatisticsForestry Research Institute of Malaysia (FRIM)Meteorological DepartmentMinistry of International Trade and Industry (MITI)Multilateral Fund (MLF)National Steering Committee (NSC)United Nations Development Programme (UNDP)United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP)United Nations Industrial Development Organization (UNIDO)World Bank

R e p o r t T e a mDepartment of Environment, Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment• Ozone Protection SectionProfessor Warwick Neville, The University of AucklandNorzilla Mohamed, UNDP Programme Associate

I n d u s t r y S t a k e h o l d e r sThe large number of Suppliers and Manufacturers involved makes it impractical toacknowledge individually all the companies that have participated in the wide range ofmeasures for the implementation of the Montreal Protocol in Malaysia. The following list ofConsultants and Associations embraces the majority of participating companies:American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air Conditioning Engineers

(ASHRAE), Malaysian ChapterAurora Chemicals Sdn BhdBaseline Technology Sdn BhdCentre for Environmental Technology (CETEC) Federation of Malaysian Consumers Association (FMCA)Federation of Malaysian Manufacturers (FMM)KP Quality Product Manufacturing Sdn BhdMalaysian Air Conditioning and Refrigerating Association (MACRA)

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S t a k e h o l d e r s

W h a t i s O z o n e ?The earth’s atmosphere is composed ofseveral layers. The closest to earth is thetroposphere where we live, where most ofour clouds and weather occur, andsubsonic aircraft fly. Above that is thestratosphere where supersonic aircraft fly,and it is here, at altitudes between about 15and 50 km, that ozone forms a layer that isthinnest in the tropics, especially around theequator, and denser towards the poles.

Ozone is a gas in which each molecule ismade up of three atoms of oxygen (O3).Ozone occurs naturally but undergoes largeseasonal variations. It is created whenultraviolet radiation, or sunlight, strikes thestratosphere splitting oxygen molecules (O2)to atomic oxygen (O) that quickly combineswith further oxygen molecules to form ozone.The splitting and reformation of ozonemolecules is a continuous natural process.

In the stratospheres the ozone layerprovides a protective shield absorbingsome of the potentially harmful ultraviolet

(UV) radiation from the sun that can causeskin cancer and damage vegetation.Ironically, at ground level, ozone is a healthhazard when it occurs as a major con-stituent of photochemical smog.

T h e O z o n e H o l eSince the mid-1970s, over Antarctica, andmore recently over the Arctic, stratosphericozone has recorded significant levels ofdepletion at certain times of the year—producing a phenomenon commonlyknown as the ‘Ozone Hole’. Although mid-latitude depletion has also been observed,the loss is most dramatic in the lowerstratosphere over the Antarctic continentduring the Antarctic spring (October). By1994, the total ozone in October was lessthan half of its value during the 1970s andthis depletion has continued. Despite someoptimism in 2005, when the situationappeared to be stabilizing, it was reportedthat from 21 to 30 September 2006, the

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T H E I S S U E : P R E V E N T I N G C O N T I N U E D O Z O N E D E P L E T I O N

ozone hole extended for 10.6 million squaremiles, the largest ever recorded (UNEPConference, New Delhi, November 2006).

The atmosphere behaves differently fromyear to year, and even though the sameprocesses that lead to ozone depletionoccur every year, the effect they have on theozone layer depends on the meteorology ofthe atmosphere above Antarctica at a giventime. This variability leads to changes in theamount of ozone depleted and the period ofdepletion in any given year.

Although the loss of ozone is greatestover the Antarctic where there has been anear total loss of ozone at some altitudes,depletion has also been occurring in mid-latitudes, but the loss here has been muchless and much slower. However, this is aserious trend and a major cause forconcern and for continued scientificinvestigation.

M e a s u r i n g O z o n e i n t h e A t m o s p h e r eScientists have been studying ozone sincethe 1920s. Measurements are made inDobson Units, named after one of the firstscientists to investigate atmospheric ozone (Figure 1). He designed the Dobsonspectrometer which measures ozone from the ground. Developments in instru-mentation no longer require viewing theatmosphere from an isolated groundstation but provide coverage and profiles ofozone in the atmosphere by a variety of airborne methods. Balloons, rockets,and aircraft carry instruments into theatmosphere providing more accurate anddetailed measurement. However, the mostconsistent and comprehensive data are

provided by satellites capable of observingthe atmosphere in all types of weather andover the most remote regions of the earth.They are capable of measuring ozonelevels, ozone profiles, and many elementsof atmospheric chemistry.

• The Dobson Unit is the standard measure of ozone in the earth’satmosphere.

• The illustration shows a column of air that is 10˚ by 5˚ overLabrador, Canada. The amount of ozone in this column (i.e.covering the 10 by 5˚ area) can be measured in Dobson Units.

• If all the ozone in this column were to be compressed tostandard temperature and pressure (STP, which is 0˚C and 1atmospheric pressure) and spread out evenly over the area, itwould form a slab approximately 3 mm thick. Because 1 DobsonUnit (DU) is defined as 0.01 mm thick at STP, this means that theozone layer over Labrador is 300 DU.

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P R O T E C T I N G T H E O Z O N E L A Y E R – M A L A Y S I A I M P L E M E N T I N G T H E M O N T R E A L P R O T O C O L

Source: Based on Centre for Atmospheric Science, University of Cambridge, ‘The Ozone Hole Tour’, Dobson Unit Definition.

Area covered by column

Imagine that all the ozoneover a certain area iscompressed down to 0˚Cand 1 atmospheric pressureso that it forms a slab ofeven thickness.

Figure 1 The Dobson Unit

H o w H u m a n A c t i v i t i e sD e p l e t e t h e O z o n e L a y e rThe dramatic fall in ozone is mainly due tothe release of man-made chemicalscontaining chlorine such as chlorofluoro-carbons (CFCs), but is also attributable to compounds containing bromine, otherrelated halogen compounds and nitrogenoxides. CFCs are a common industrialproduct used in refrigeration systems, airconditioners, aerosols, and solvents, and inthe production of some types of packaging.Nitrogen oxides are a by-product ofcombustion processes such as aircraftemissions.

No significant natural sources have everbeen identified for these compounds sothere is little equivocation over their origin:their presence in the atmosphere is almostentirely attributable to human manufacture.When such ozone-depleting chemicalsreach the stratosphere, they react withultraviolet light to release chlorine atomsthat act as a catalyst to break down ozonemolecules before eventually being removedfrom the stratosphere (see Figure 2).Because of the longevity of CFC molecules,recovery times from their impact aremeasured in decades.

Natural causes or events are unlikely tohave contributed significantly to ozonedepletion. Volcanic eruptions are powerfulevents and capable of injecting hydrogenchloride high into the atmosphere. Oceansproduce large volumes of sea salt whichcontains chlorine. If these compoundsaccumulated in large quantities in thestratosphere, they might result in ozonedepletion. However, the majority of volcaniceruptions are too weak to reach thestratosphere and remain in the troposphere.

3


Figure 2 How Oxygen Molecules Split Apart

UV radiation

UV radiation

O2

O2

O2

O2 splitting

O3 splitting

O3

O3

O3

O2

Because not all chemicals affect the ozone layer in the same way,scientists have established a common benchmark called OzoneDepleting Potential (ODP) against which each ozone-depleting substancecan be measured. The benchmark used is that of the chlorofluorocarbonsCFC-11 and CFC-12, both of which have a reference level of 1.0.

Other substances are assigned values in relation to how muchmore or less a comparable weight would deplete the ozone layer. Forexample, methyl bromide* has an ODP of 0.6, meaning that a tonne ofmethyl bromide would have 60 per cent of the impact on the ozone layeras a tonne of CFC-11 or CFC-12. The use of ODP as a standard measuremakes it possible to compare how scientific projects that focus onassessing the impact of different chemicals will affect the ozone layer.

O z o n e - D e p l e t i n g S u b s t a n c e s a n d O z o n e - D e p l e t i n g P o t e n t i a l

* The elimination of the use of CFCs and methyl bromide in Malaysia is discussed later in the section on the Phase-OutExperience in SMEs.

In the stratosphere, oxygenmolecules that absorbhigh-energy UV rays splitapart. Each of the oxygenatoms released in theprocess can join with O2 toform O2. When an ozonemolecule absorbs UV rays,it breaks apart, leaving anoxygen molecule and asingle oxygen atom, whichcan go on to join anotherO2 and form O2 once again.

Sea salt is also released at low levels in theatmosphere. The compounds from suchnatural sources would have to remainairborne for 2–5 years to be carried up to the stratosphere. But, unlike CFCs, both hydrogen chloride and sea salt areextremely soluble in water and raineffectively cleans the troposphere, removingboth of these forms of chlorine.

W h y i s O z o n e D e p l e t i o n a T h r e a t ?The main concern regarding the depletionof ozone in the atmosphere is the impact ofUV radiation on human health (Table 1). Theozone layer acts as a natural atmosphericfilter and the depletion of ozone means that its protective effectiveness is reducedsignificantly, increasing the amount ofsurface UV worldwide. This phenomenon isparticularly serious in southern parts ofAustralia, New Zealand, and South America,in the regions closest to the expanding

Antarctic Ozone Hole, which isstill showing severe depletion.

UV radiation is generallyrecognized to be a majorcontributory factor to skincancers. Some cancers suchas carcinomas are relativelymild and rarely fatal, but maybe disfiguring and requirereconstructive surgery. Malig-nant melanoma, although less common, is far moredangerous and is likely to prove fatal inabout 20 per cent of cases diagnosed. UVradiation is also known to affect the humanimmune system and to cause eye damage,including cataracts.

UV radiation can affect plant growth andproductivity. Plants have the ability to resista single stress but if this is combined with another stress such as warming ornutrient or water deprivation, the impactcan be serious. A number of economicallyimportant species of plants such as paddy

4


UV radiation is the portion of the electromagnetic spectrum between x-rays and visible light. The sun is theprimary natural source of UV radiation but artificial sources of UVA and UVC are utilized for various purposessuch as tanning (UVA) and killing bacteria (UVC). UVB is the form of UV radiation most affected by the variationsin the intensity of the ozone layer.

UVA

UVB

UVC

Spectrum

320–400

290–320

220–290

Little

Partial

Total

Synthesizes Vitamin D

Synthesizes Vitamin D

Germicidal treatment

Suppression of immune

system, cataracts

Skin cancer, cataracts

Burns

Wavelength(nanometres)

AtmosphericAbsorption Positive Negative

Applications

Table 1 Ultraviolet Radiation

depend on particular UV-sensitive bacteriaresiding on their roots for the retention ofnitrogen. Phytoplankton, the microscopicplants that constitute the basis of themarine food chain, are particularly suscep-tible to increases in UV radiation andreduction in their numbers has a negativeimpact on other marine species, includingcommercial fish stocks.

Impacts of UV radiation are not onlybiological, affecting human health and plantlife, but also include accelerated dete-rioration of such essential products asplastics, wood, paper, cotton, and wool.

C o n s e r v i n g t h e O z o n e L a y e rAs early as 1974, the first scientific evidencewas emerging that connected depletion ofthe ozone layer with the occurrence ofCFCs in the atmosphere, a discovery ofsuch importance that the researchers—

Paul Crutzen, Mario Molina, and SherwoodRowland—were subsequently awarded the1995 Nobel Prize for Chemistry.

The issue of ozone depletion was firstdiscussed by the United Nations Environ-ment Programme (UNEP) in 1976, and in1977 UNEP convened a meeting of expertson the ozone layer. UNEP and the WorldMeteorological Organization (WMO) set up the Coordinating Committee of theOzone Layer to periodically assess ozonedepletion. Intergovernmental negotiations foran international agreement to phase outozone-depleting substances started in 1981and concluded with the adoption of theVienna Convention for the Protection of theOzone Layer in March 1985. The urgency ofthe need for appropriate measures to betaken was forcefully confirmed by the mid-1980s’ discovery of the Ozone Hole overthe Antarctic and the severe levels of ozonedepletion occurring in many parts of theglobe’s atmosphere.

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The rising awareness of these issues duringthe 1970s and 1980s persuaded manynations of the need for internationalagreement and cooperation to protect theozone layer in the interests of countriesworldwide. Nevertheless, as the lengthyPreamble to the Vienna Convention indi-cates, gaining agreement even among thelimited group of nations that were the earlymovers on these issues was not easy.

A number of issues combined to prolongthe negotiations despite agreement on thecommonly held goals of protecting humanhealth and the environment against theadverse affects resulting from modificationof the ozone layer. These included• the sovereign right of each country to

exploit its own resources;• the disparate needs of developing

countries;• the World Plan of Action on the Ozone

Layer of the United Nations EnvironmentProgramme;

• existing measures for protection of theozone layer already in place; and

• the incomplete understanding of thescientific processes involved.

T h e V i e n n a C o n v e n t i o n f o r t h e P r o t e c t i o n o f t h e O z o n e L a y e rDespite the initial difficulties, in 1985 inVienna, after four years of preparation, 20nations signed the agreement to take‘appropriate measures … to protect humanhealth and the environment against adverseeffects resulting or likely to result fromhuman activities which modify or are likelyto modify the Ozone Layer’, initiating thefirst formal attempts for comprehensive

international cooperative measures thateventuated in the Vienna Convention.

The main thrust of the Convention was toencourage research and overall co-operation among countries and to promotethe exchange of information, but even so,the signatories took some time to ratify theagreement. The Vienna Convention alsoprovided for future protocols and specifiedprocedures for amendment and disputesettlement.

The Vienna Convention set an importantprecedent. For the first time, nations agreedin principle to tackle a global environmentalproblem before its effects were felt or evencomprehensively and scientifically demon-strated. However, coincidentally in the sameyear as the initial signing of the Convention,scientists were reporting exceptionallysevere ozone depletion over the Antarctic.These findings were soon verified bysatellite observation, confirming the

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I N T E R N A T I O N A L D E V E L O P M E N T O F T H E M O N T R E A L P R O T O C O L

unprecedented scale of ozone depletionand highlighting the need for urgency inaddressing the problem.

T h e M o n t r e a l P r o t o c o l o nS u b s t a n c e s T h a t D e p l e t et h e O z o n e L a y e rAs a consequence of these developmentsand the obvious necessity for decisiveaction, the signatories to the Vienna Con-vention developed specific measures fordealing with this situation and in 1987 theMontreal Protocol was agreed and signed(Box 1). By 2006, 189 states had signed asParties to the Montreal Protocol.

Since the initial signing, in keeping withthe expectation that scientific knowledgeand political circumstances would change,there have been a number of adjustmentsand amendments to the original treaty—amendments identified as ‘London 1990’,‘Copenhagen 1992’, ‘Vienna 1995’, ‘Montreal1997’, and ‘Beijing 1999’.

The Montreal Protocol was structuredaround several categories of substancesthat have been shown to contribute to ozonedepletion, each described in an Article in theProtocol. For each category of substance,the Protocol specified a timetable for an initial‘consumption freeze’ and an ultimate ‘phaseout’. Differing targets were set for developedand developing (Article 5) countries inrecognition of the latter’s need for acce-lerated industrial development and relativelysmall production and use of Ozone-depletingSubstances (ODSs). The Protocol requires all Parties to the Protocol to ban exports and imports of controlled substances to and from non-Parties.

Production and consumption of CFCs,

halons and other ozone-depleting chemicalshave been phased out in industrializedcountries and a schedule is in place toeliminate the use of methyl bromide, apesticide and agricultural fumigant. Partiesmay agree to approved but limitedexemptions for ‘critical uses’ where there areno feasible alternatives to a substance’s use.

As Table 2 shows, developing countriesagreed to freeze most CFC consumptionfrom 1 July 1999 based on 1995–7averages; to reduce this consumption by50 per cent by January 2005; and to fullyeliminate these CFCs by January 2010.Other control measures apply to ODSssuch as halons, carbon tetrachloride, andmethyl chloroform. For methyl bromide,

The Preamble states that the Parties to the Protocol, among other issues,

• recognize that world-wide emissions of certain substances cansignificantly deplete and otherwise modify the ozone layer in a mannerthat is likely to result in adverse effects on human health and theenvironment;…

• are determined to protect the ozone layer by taking precautionarymeasures to control equitably total global emissions of substances thatdeplete it, with the ultimate objective of their elimination on the basisof developments in scientific knowledge, taking into account technicaland economic considerations and bearing in mind the developmentalneeds of developing countries;…

• acknowledge that special provision is required to meet the needs ofdeveloping countries, including the provision of additional financialresources and access to relevant technologies;…

• agree to a series of steps limiting the production and use of substancesthat deplete the ozone layer.

Box 1 The Rationale for the Montreal Protocol

8


used primarily as a fumigant, developedcountries froze their consumption at 1995levels and will eliminate all use by 2010,while developing countries committed tofreeze consumption by 2002 based onaverage 1995–8 levels and to completelyphase out use by 2015.

The provisions of the Protocol includethe requirement that the Parties to theProtocol base their future decisions on thecurrent scientific, environmental, technical,and eco-nomic information that is assessedthrough panels drawn from the worldwidecommunity of experts (Box 2). To providethat input to the decision-making process,advances in knowledge and under-standing on these topics have beenassessed in a series of reports entitled‘Scientific Assessment of Ozone Depletion’,in 1989, 1991, 1994, 1998, 2002, and2006. This information, which helped tosupport discussions among the Parties thatled to the subsequent amendments earlierand provided new policy-relevant insights

into the roles of ozone-depleting gases, hasbeen achieved by recent research andconfirmed by the findings of the ‘ScientificAssessment of Ozone Depletion: 2006’.

The Montreal Protocol marked a globally historic achievement and amilestone in environmental policy development. It was the first legallybinding international environment agreement

• to develop a strategy to address a shared environmental issue that isagreed to or approved by both developing and developed countries;

• to adopt a precautionary principle of setting out a strategy for immediateaction even before all of the scientific ramifications were known;

• to impose trade sanctions to achieve its goals;

• to differentiate between developed and developing countries inrecognizing the origins of the problem and distributing responsibilityaccordingly for solving it.

Source: UNDP Montreal Protocol website.

Protocol Article and Substance

2A Chlorofluoro-carbons (CFCs)

2B Halons2C Other Fully

Halogenated CFCs2D Carbon Tetrachloride2E Methyl Chloroform2F Hydrochloro fluoro-

carbons (HCFCs)2H Methyl Bromide

1 July 1989

––

–1 Jan 19931 Jan 1996

1 Jan 1995

1 Jan 1996

1 Jan 19941 Jan 1996

1 Jan 19961 Jan 19961 Jan 2030

1 Jan 2010

1 July 1999

1 Jan 2002–

–1 Jan 20031 Jan 2016

1 Jan 2002

1 Jan 2010

1 Jan 20101 Jan 2010

1 Jan 20101 Jan 20151 Jan 2040

1 Jan 2015

Developed Countries Developing CountriesConsumption Freeze Phase Out Consumption Freeze Phase Out

Table 2 Implementation Schedule for Control Measures Under the Montreal Protocol

Box 2 A Historic Achievement of International Cooperation

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T h e O z o n e S e c r e t a r i a t o f t h e U n i t e d N a t i o n sE n v i r o n m e n t P r o g r a m m eThe Ozone Secretariat is the secretariat forthe Vienna Convention for the Protection ofthe Ozone Layer and for the MontrealProtocol on Substances That Deplete theOzone Layer. The main duties of theSecretariat include• arranging for and servicing the con-

ferences of the Parties, their meetings,committees, the bureaux, working groups,and assessment panels;

• arranging for the implementation ofdecisions resulting from these meetings,

• monitoring the implementation of theConvention and the Protocol;

• reporting to the meetings of the Partiesand to the Implementation Committee;

• representing the Convention and theProtocol;

• receiving and analyzing data andinformation from the Parties on theproduction and consumption of Ozone-Depleting Substances; and

• providing information.

The Secretariat is based at the United

Nations Environment Programme (UNEP)offices in Nairobi, Kenya.

Among the services provided by UNEP and related organizations isaccess to information about ozone depletion, the current scientific statusof the ozone layer, measures and procedures being implemented tominimize human impact through the use of ozone-depleting substances,and other related issues. Two types of reports dealing with suchinformation are

1. ‘Scientific Assessment of Ozone Depletion: 2006’, prepared by theScientific Assessment Panel of the Montreal Protocol on Substancesthat Deplete the Ozone Layer, released in August 2006 by the WorldMeteorological Organization and UNEP. Assessments of this type havebeen carried out every 2–3 years since the introduction of theMontreal Protocol. An Executive Summary can be found at

http://ozone.unep.org/Publications/Assessment_Reports/

2. Technology reports prepared by the Technology and EconomicAssessment Panel (TEAP) of UNEP related to the alternativetechnologies that have been investigated and employed to make itpossible to virtually eliminate the use of ozone-depleting substances(ODSs), such as chlorofluorocarbons, halons, methyl bromide, and thelike, which harm the ozone layer. Online reports are listed at

http://ozone.unep.org/teap/Reports/index.asp

I n t e r n a t i o n a l I n f o r m a t i o n o n O z o n e D e p l e t i o n a n d R e l a t e d I s s u e s

T h e M u l t i l a t e r a l F u n d f o rt h e I m p l e m e n t a t i o n o f t h eM o n t r e a l P r o t o c o lThe Multilateral Fund (MLF) beganoperating in 1991 and is managed by anExecutive Committee comprising an equalnumber of members from developed anddeveloping countries. The main objective ofthe Fund is to assist the 143 developingcountries whose annual per capita pro-duction consumption of ozone-depletingsubstances (ODS) is less than 0.3 kg(known as Article 5 countries) to complywith the control measures of the Protocol.

Contributions to the Multilateral Fundfrom the 49 industrialized countries(including countries with economies intransition; these are all non-Article 5countries) that are assessed according tothe United Nations scale of assessment. Asat April 2006, contributions by industrializedcountries had totalled over US$2 billion.About $41.6 billion of this amount has beendisbursed for over 4,600 projects in 134 countries through the United NationsDevelopment Programme (UNDP), theUnited Nations Environment Programme(UNEP), the United Nations IndustrialDevelopment Organization (UNIDO), andthe World Bank. Funds are used to financethe conversion of existing manufacturingprocesses, train personnel, pay royaltiesand patent rights on new technologies, andestablish national ozone offices.

The implementation of these projects indeveloping countries will result in thephase-out of the consumption of morethan 226,855 Ozone Depletion Potential(ODP) metric tonnes and in the phase-outof production of about 156,342 ODP

metric tonnes of ozone-depletingsubstances. Of this total, about 190,688ODP tonnes of consumption and 116,197tonnes of production had already beenphased out by approved projects as ofDecember 2005.

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The work that the MLF finances in recipient developing countries ismanaged by four implementing agencies

• United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP),• United Nations Development Programme (UNDP),• United Nations Industrial Development Organization (UNIDO), and• World Bank (WB)

Generally, investment-oriented projects are led by UNDP, UNIDO, and WB.Non-investment projects, especially those focused on training,networking, and information sharing, are usually led by UNEP. In additionthere are numerous bilateral agreements between developed anddeveloping countries that provide financial and technical support forprojects involving ODS reduction.

T h e I m p l e m e n t i n g A g e n c i e s

UNDP’s Montreal Protocol Unit works with public and private partners indeveloping countries to assist in meeting the scheduled targets for thecontrol measures. Partners include

• national and local governments;• industrial enterprises irrespective of size;• representative organizations (e.g. refrigeration and air-conditioning

associations, agricultural institutions); and• individual and collective members of civil society (farmers, NGOs).

UNDP’s Multilateral Fund activities are conducted by the UNDP MontrealProtocol Unit located at UNDP headquarters in New York.

T h e U N D P M o n t r e a l P r o t o c o l U n i t

11

M A L A Y S I A ’ S R A T I F I C A T I O N A N D I M P L E M E N TA T I O NO F T H E M O N T R E A L P R O T O C O L

R a t i f i c a t i o n o f t h eM o n t r e a l P r o t o c o l i n 1 9 8 9Malaysia was not one of the foundingsignatories to the Montreal Protocol in 1987,but first became involved as a participant inthe Conference of Plenipotentiaries on theProtocol on CFCs to the Vienna Conventionin Montreal that same year. Strong concernwas expressed at the Conference byMalaysia’s head of delegation, Dr Abu BakarJaafar, over what he perceived as theunfairness of the various control strategies,trade restrictions, discrimination against

non-Parties, and economic implications fordeveloping countries. Malaysia also voicedits disapproval over the issue of annual percapita consumption of CFCs and halonswhich were considered to be unfair todeveloping countries.

Despite these misgivings, the Govern-ment of Malaysia recognized the im-portance of the Protocol and its serioussocio-economic implications especially forthe developing industrial sector, andimmediately outlined its future strategiesand plan of action.

MYANMAR LAOS

VIETNAM

SUMATRA

PENINSULAR MALAYSIA

EAST MALAYSIA

SINGAPORE

INDONESIA

SULAWESI

MINDANAO

PHILIPPINES

BRUNEIDARUSSALAM

CAMBODIA

THAILAND

Map 1 Malaysia in South-East Asia

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T h e M o n t r e a l P r o t o c o l : W o r k i n g T o w a r d s a n M D GIn his recent report to the United NationsGeneral Assembly on the progress madetowards achieving the MDGs (‘In LargerFreedom’, 21 March 2005), Kofi Annanhighlighted the implementation of theMontreal Protocol as a noteworthy exampleof success: ‘We fundamentally depend onnatural systems and resources for ourexistence and development. Our efforts todefeat poverty and pursue sustainabledevelopment will be in vain if environmentaldegradation and natural resource depletioncontinue unabated. At the country level,national strategies must include invest-ments in improved environmental manage-ment and make the structural changesrequired for environmental sustainability…We already have an encouraging exampleshowing how global solutions can be found. Thanks to the Montreal Protocol onSubstances That Deplete the Ozone Layer,the risk of harmful radiation appears to be receding — a clear demonstration of how global environmental problems can be managed when all countries makedetermined efforts to implement inter-nationally agreed frameworks.’*

E s t a b l i s h i n g a nI n s t i t u t i o n a l F r a m e w o r kAware of the commitment it would bemaking by becoming a signatory, theGovernment of Malaysia set up a NationalSteering Committee (NSC) on the Pro-tection of the Ozone Layer, replacing an AdHoc Technical Committee set up in 1986 toconsider these issues. In 1989, on therecommendation of the NSC, Malaysia

ratified the Vienna Convention and theMontreal Protocol and it has also ratified allsubsequent amendments.

The NSC is composed of representativesfrom various ministries and agenciesincluding the Ministry of Natural Resourcesand Environment (MNRE), Ministry ofInternational Trade and Industry (MITI),Malaysian Industrial Development Authority(MIDA), and the Customs Department. TheNSC comprises a Technical Committee andIndustrial Working Groups set up to dealwith the main problematic substances suchas solvents and aerosols, and with othersadded later to match the Protocol’samendments (Figure 3).

* UNDP, UNEP, UNIDO, and World Bank (2005), The Montreal Protocol: Partnerships Changing the World.

In the Country Statement, Dr Abu Bakar Jaafar characterized thetreaty as ‘inequitable’. He wrote that the developing nations ‘hadbeen “had” at Montreal’ because they were ‘unaware of the fullsocio-economic implications of the Protocol’. He stated that therehad been insufficient time for reviewing the ‘lengthy and legalisticEnglish-language Protocol’ before it had been ‘rushed to theplenary session for signature’. He criticized the Protocol forallotting a lower per capita consumption quota to developingcountries than to industrialized countries. He also contended thatthe treaty’s trade provisions amounted to ‘trade war by decree’.

M a l a y s i a ’ s C o u n t r y S t a t e m e n t i n 1 9 8 8

Source: Cited from Department of Environment Malaysia, 1999, p. 7.


13

M A L A Y S I A ’ S R A T I F I C A T I O N A N D I M P L E M E N T A T I O N O F T H E M O N T R E A L P R O T O C O L

The NSC is responsible for overseeingthe National Action Plan on ODS, and theDepartment of Environment serves as thesecretariat to the NSC. An Ozone ProtectionUnit, established within the Department ofEnvironment in 1996, operates as theproject management office monitoringMalaysia’s substance phase-out activities.This Unit was renamed ‘Ozone ProtectionSection’ in 2003 and a Project ManagementUnit was set up within the Section in 2004.

Establishment of the Project ManagementUnit (PMU) within the Department ofEnvironment in conjunction with the OPS has

been part of a capacity-building measure toprovide resources for promoting awarenessof ozone issues and for monitoring andverifying project implementation. In particular,the PMU is responsible for the managementof the NCFCP and for related financialrecording and auditing.

The Ozone Protection Section (OPS) haseight broad areas of responsibility (Figure 4).These include providing a focal point forobtaining information and assistance;coordinating liaison between institutionsoffering expertise and the industries affected;collecting and disseminating statistical data;

Figure 3 Committees Established as Part of Malaysia’s Institutional Framework for the Protection of the Ozone Layer

14


monitoring the phase-out process andensuring enforcement; raising industrial andpublic awareness through conferences,seminars, and workshops; promoting policyand regulations, especially as they relate to phase-out procedures; coordinating,monitoring, and reporting progress under the phase-out plan; and supportinginternational connections and networks.

Malaysia demonstrated exceptionalcommitment and leadership in furthering the interests of all Article 5 (developing)countries in the negotiations for the esta-blishment of the Multilateral Fund (MLF) in1991. As a result of its strong commitmentand convictions, Malaysia was one of thefirst and longest serving developing-

country members on the MLF’s ExecutiveCommittee and in 2006, after a shortabsence from the Executive Committee, itassumed the position of joint chair.

Integrating stakeholders through creatingpartnerships with the industrial sector hasbeen a key ingredient in the success of the Malaysian experience of phasing outozone depleting substances and adoptingalternatives. The active involvement of civilsociety and non-governmental organizations(NGOs) has also contributed significantly tothe successful implementation of the plan ofaction. The Department of Environment hasinitiated a number of activities during thephase-out process with the industrial workinggroups, manufacturers, suppliers, and users.

Enforcement and Monitoring- Monitoring of Progress and Implementation of Phase-out Projects- Control of Imports- Enforcement of EQA 1974

One-stop Agency- National Focal Point- Secretariat- Focal Point for Fund Secretariat- Focal Point for Bilateral and Multilateral Assistance

Data Collection- Collection/Keeping of Records- Collaboration and Notification- Processing/Evaluation and Monitoring Dissemination

Development of Control Measures- Policy, Law, Regulation- Phase-out Strategies- Country Programme- NCFCP

Coordinating and Monitoring- Coordination and Monitoring- Activities Under National CFC- Phase-out Plan (NCFCP)- Monitoring and Reporting to Implementing Agency/Fund Secretariat on Progress

International Affairs- Meeting of Parties (COP)- Open-ended Working Group- ODS Network/SEAP- Custom-ODS Network- Advisory/UNEP Work Programme- Conferences/Seminars/Workshops- EXCOM Members

Awareness Activities- Promotion of Cooperation- Promotion of Public Awareness- ODS Publications- Dissemination and Information Exchange- Seminars/Conferences/Workshops

Advisory and Liaison- Provision of Guidance and Assistance to Industries- Liaison with International Experts(World Bank, UNDP, UNEP, UNIDO)

Duties and Functions

Ozone Protection Section (OPS)

Figure 4 The Ozone Protection Section (OPS), Department of Environment

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I m p o r t a t i o n a n dC o n s u m p t i o n o f O z o n e -D e p l e t i n g S u b s t a n c e sOver recent decades, as in most countriesof the world, Malaysian farmers, indus-trialists, and the public at large have beenenthusiastic users of chemical formulationsthat have been developed for fumigation,eradication of rodents and pests, and use as refrigerants, aerosol propellants, fire retardants, solvents, and other suchpurposes. However, as is now well known,many of the substances used for theselegitimate practices have been depletingthe atmospheric ozone layer andconsequently increasing human exposureto damaging ultraviolet radiation.

Malaysia has long been a consumer butnot a manufacturer of ozone-depletingsubstances (ODS) which, until recently,have been imported mainly from the UnitedStates, the United Kingdom, Germany, Italy,Greece, and Japan. More recently, ODSssuch as CFC-12 have been imported fromIndia and China. With worldwide awarenessof the ozone depletion problem and globalagreement to implement preventativemeasure under the provisions of theMontreal Protocol, patterns of consumptionhave been changing, often in response togoals set under the Protocol for eradicationof ODS use and the substitution of morebenign products that achieve similar results.

Although the Montreal Protocol lists asubstantial number of ODSs that need tobe discarded or replaced, many of theseare largely confined to developed countriesfor specialized industrial and otherpurposes. Others, such as halons used inportable fire extinguishers, were morewidespread. Halon portable fire extinguisher

manufacture in Malaysia was quickly andeasily modified by conversion to dry powderor CO2 portable fire extinguishers, butdisposal of existing halon equipment wasmore problematic. Generally, however, inMalaysia as in most developing countries,the main ozone-depleting substances inwidespread use are CFCs.

Malaysia’s imports of CFCs havegenerally been declining since 1995

The NCFCP programmes are as follows:

• CFC free metered-dose inhalers awareness programme for asthmapatients promoted by the National Pharmaceutical Control Bureau andsupported by the Ministry of Health;

• Customs ODS training programme for customs officers handling thepotentially illegal import of CFCs, being offered by the Department ofEnvironment and the Malaysia Customs Academy;

• mobile air conditioning (MAC) vehicle inspection and training manualfor officers of the Department of Environment and PUSPAKOM (aprivate inspection company appointed as a government agency) tomonitor and enforce replacement of refrigerant CFCs;

• air conditioning servicing programme and the establishment ofcertification of service technician training;

• CFC phase-out programme for foam and solvent projects under whichall remaining users are required to submit proposals for CFCreplacement and applications for financial assistance;

• support for the CFC phase-out programme for the refrigerant servicesector by establishing a certification course for service technicianswho are refrigerant operators, air conditioning service contractors, andowners of commercial refrigerant operations, and the licensing ofauthorized training programmes and workshops.

S i x P r o g r a m m e s C a r r i e d O u t U n d e r t h e N C F C P

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(Table 3) although there was a marked upsurge in 1997 in anticipation of theimplementation of the Montreal Protocolcontrol in 1999. In the event, actual importswere well within the limits imposed by theProtocol regulations and continued todecline ahead of the maximum allowed.Under the National CFC Phase-Out Plan,fewer approved permits for the importationof CFCs are being granted and will nolonger be available from 2010 onwards.

The trend in consumption of imports, theamounts permitted under the MontrealProtocol, and the Malaysian achievement of

substantial reductions in CFC consumptionahead of the requirements through to 2007,are depicted in Figure 5. Malaysia isexpecting to fulfil its obligations under theProtocol with the final phase-out completedas scheduled in 2010.

A d o p t i o n o f C o n t r o lM e a s u r e s a n d N a t i o n a lM o n i t o r i n gFollowing ratification of the MontrealProtocol, Malaysia implemented the NationalAction Plan which provided for Phase 1 ofthe ODS Country Programme to be carriedout during the period 1992–2001. Phase 2is the National CFC Phase-Out Plan (NCFCP)2002–2010, currently being implemented.

The main objective of the NCFCP is toassist the Government of Malaysia to phaseout completely its CFC consumption inaccordance with the phase-out schedule of the Montreal Protocol. A total consumptionof 2,092 ODP metric tonnes (as of 2000) ofchemicals such as CFC-11, CFC-12, CFC-

* Approved Permits for importation.Source: Ozone Protection Section, Department of Environment Malaysia, 2003.

Year

19951996199719981999200020012002

3,4423,0483,3512,3512,0401,6511,5381,606

3,2713,2713,2713,271 1,855

Actual Imports

Under MontrealProtocol Control

Permit Allocation1 forNCFCP Commitment

Year

20032004200520062007200820092010

1,1741,116

662

3,2713,2711,6351,635

491491491

0

1,5661,136

699579490401332

0

Actual Imports

Under MontrealProtocol Control

Permit Allocation* forNCFCP Commitment

Table 3 Malaysia’s Importation and Consumption of CFCs, 1995–2010 (metric tonnes)

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4000

1995 2000 2005 2010 YEAR

3500

3000

2500

2000

1500

1000

500

0

4000

3500

3000

2500

2000

1500

1000

500

0

Actual importsPermit allocation/NCFCP commitmentMontreal Protocol control

Figure 5 Trends in Malaysia’s CFC Consumption, 1995–2010 (metric tonnes)

113, CFC-114, and CFC-115 is being phasedout under this programme. In addition,consumption of 331 metric tonnes of 1,1,1-trichloroethane is also being phased out.

To achieve these objectives, the NationalCFC Phase-out Plan utilizes a combinationof policies, regulations, and financialsupport to subsidize the phase-out cost ofthe industrial sector; and promote refri-gerant recovery/recycling, training andtechnical assistance activities to minimizeand eventually eliminate the import ofCFCs. The programme includes a technicalassistance component for strengtheningcapacity of the industry and concernedagencies in order to carry out investment,regulations, and public awareness andparticipation activities. It also introduces an innovative implementation modality,including a monitoring programme, to ensure

the successful and effective implementationof the complete CFC phase-out programme.

Most of the reduction in consumption ofCFCs through the 1990s and into the earlyyears of the twenty first century has beenachieved in the manufacturing sector with afocus on medium to large enterprises thatare readily identified, enabling the country to easily achieve its 2005 consumptiontarget of 1,635 metric tonnes (Figure 5).(The reference to ‘manufacturing’ in thissection is to the consumption of ODSs inthe process of manufacturing refrigerators,air conditioners, foam, and other products,and not to the manufacture of ODSs them-selves.) The recent economic slowdown thathas reportedly caused significant amounts of manufacturing equipment to remain idlemay prove to hinder the achievement ofsubsequent goals.

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A further concern experienced bymanufacturing was that in the solventsector there had not been any legislation tocontrol consumption, with the result thatdemand for CFCs recorded an increasefrom 1998. While some of this was almostcertainly attributable to stockpiling in caseregulations changed, it was only with theintroduction of legislation that effectivecontrol of consumption became feasible.

The challenge, as the NCFCP proceeds,is to phase out the use of CFCs in Smalland Medium-Sized Enterprises (SMEs),especially those in the service sector, asthe performance in the later stages of thephase-out up to the Montreal Protocoldeadline of 2010 largely depends on theimpact that can be made in that sector.The most critical component for Malaysia isthe demand for CFC-12 to service mobileair conditioners (MACs). A conservativeestimate suggests the demand in 2007could be about 823 ODP metric tonnes,which is almost double the target of 491metric tonnes that Malaysia is expected toreduce to.

Considering this multifaceted approach,the Malaysian Government is expected toadopt a flexible approach to the imple-mentation of the strategies outlined in theNCFCP, especially in relation to the complexand dynamic nature of SMEs.

The Government of Malaysia has requestedfinancial assistance of US$11,400,380 from the MLF to cover the greater part ofthe phase-out costs. This amount will bedisbursed by the MLF over a period of nineyears. With 422 ODP metric tonnes to bephased out from projects already approvedand funded by the MLF, this funding

request will phase out a further 1,670 ODPmetric tonnes (i.e. the total of 2,092 metrictonnes cited above) plus 33 metric tonnesof 1,1,1-trichloroethane. The overall costeffectiveness of the National CFC Phase-Out Plan is US$6.67 per kg ODP.

The strategies adopted for the pro-grammes completed or currently beingundertaken include awareness and promotioncampaigns; CFC import control through the approved permit system; technicalassistance and training; and subsidies andenforcement of regulations for controllingCFCs under the Environment Quality Act.

• By 1999 all MAC manufacturers in Malaysia had converted tosupplying only HFC-134a (also known as R-134a) refrigerant systemsto the local vehicle manufacturing industry for installation in newvehicles. These systems, replacing CFC-12 (or R-12), have zero ozone-depleting potential.

• The MAC servicing industry has been the biggest consumer of CFCsthrough the maintenance of the R-12 MACS installed in vehicles.

• To be certain that the population of CFC-based MACs continues todecline as old vehicles are put out of service, steps had to be taken to ensure that– no retrofitting of CFC-free MACs with CFC refrigerant occurred;– only CFC-free new MACs are being supplied to the local vehicle

manufacturing plants.

• For all vehicles registered from 2005 onwards– installation of CFC-12 MAC systems has been banned;– inspection of vehicles includes the inspection of the MAC refrigerant

being used;– owners of vehicles continuing to use CFC refrigerants are liable

to be fined.

M o b i l e A i r C o n d i t i o n e r ( M A C ) R e f r i g e r a n t s

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A C C O M P L I S H M E N T S O F M O N T R E A L P R O T O C O LM E A S U R E S I M P L E M E N T E D B Y U N D P

P h a s e - O u t E x p e r i e n c e i nS m a l l t o M e d i u m - S i z e dE n t e r p r i s e s ( S M E s )Between 1993 and 2004, a total of 77SMEs in Malaysia received assistance fromthe MLF to change their productionmethods, technology, and equipment, andto learn the requisite skills for operating thenew equipment. The enterprises involvedwere utilizing methods and substances formanufacturing foam, aerosols, solvents,refrigerants, and halons. A sum of overUS$20 million was disbursed within thisperiod resulting in the phasing out of 2,357.2metric tonnes of ODPs from these sources.

H a l o n sThe phase-out of halon fire extinguishers inMalaysia was initiated in 1990 by the FireServices Department and the Departmentof Environment. Conversion of the manu-facturing facilities from halon portable fireextinguishers to dry (ABC class) powder orCO2 portable fire extinguishers was completedin 1996 when the last company involved,producing about 56,000 extinguishers peryear, finally made the changeover.

C h l o r o f l u o r o c a r b o n s( C F C s )Most of the following SME projects wereinitiated in the mid-to-late 1990s and,following formal proposals, consultation withthe companies concerned, and granting ofthe requisite funds for implementation, havebeen carried out over a period of 3–4 yearsup to 2004.

SME Project Phasing Out Residual Aerosol CFCsThis project finally eliminated the use of aresidual 250 metric tonnes of aerosol CFCsthrough conversion to hydrocarbonaerosol-filling technology, completing theODS phase-out for the entire aerosol sectorin Malaysia. The project inputs includedprovision of filling equipment, fire protection,gas detection systems, civil works, andtechnical assistance.

Considerable care has been exercised in the selection of alternativetechnologies that have consistently been based on the followingconsiderations:

• proven and reasonably mature technology;• cost-effective conversion;• local availability of substitutes;• support from local systems suppliers;• maintenance of critical properties in the end product;• enforcement of stablished standards on environment and safety.

A d o p t i o n o f A l t e r n a t i v e T e c h n o l o g i e s

The project was carried out on a groupimplementation basis. Eight small enterprisesunderwent individual plant conversion asthey were not capable of offering central fillerfacilities for other users. Another companywas also converted as a stand-alone entityas it was the sole remaining insecticideaerosol manufacturer and, because of the riskof product contamination, was consideredunsuitable to provide a centralized fillerfacility. Eight enterprises agreed to convertto non-CFC aerosol filling and to act ascontract central filler agencies.

An MLF funding grant of US$1,486,660was allocated for this project, withenterprises that agreed to offer a contractfiller facility receiving a greater subsidy than the stand-alone enterprises. Thefunding provided for technical assistanceto implement, coordinate, and oversee theproject in consultation with the Departmentof Environment and UNDP.

SME Projects Phasing Out Foam CFCsA shift in technology has been widespreadthroughout the SMEs involved in theMalaysian foam manufacturing industry.The MLF provided funding for both of theconversions outlined in the following casestudies through UNDP with the Departmentof Environment Malaysia as the nationalimplementation agency on behalf of thegovernment of Malaysia.

Case Study 1: Unique FieldUnique Field Sdn Bhd is a one hundred percent Malaysian-owned enterprise. Foundedin 1981, it is located in Seremban, NegeriSembilan, and operates two productionplants that function as an integrated entity.The objective of this project was to phase

out the use of CFCs in the manufacture offlexible moulded polyurethane foam forinterior trim parts used in the transportationindustry. These included motorcycle seats,truck and automotive back cushions(comprising 70 per cent of production), andheadrests and seat cushions (30 per cent).All production is for domestic consumption.

In 1998, the company was using 18.5metric tonnes of CFC-11 annually for itsmanufacturing operations. The alternativetechnology chosen was direct-injectionLiquid Carbon Dioxide (LCD), a non-ODPsolution for the lower-density foams, and awater-based technology for high-densityfoams. The project required the replacementof some types of equipment. The fundingcovered the cost of trials, technology transferand training, contingencies, and incrementaloperating expenses for two years.

The changeover to LCD technology forthe lower-density foam incurred lowerincremental costs as a consequence of theconversion, whereas the conversion towater-blown technology for the higher–density foam increased operating costs.However, overall the change resulted in a

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A C C O M P L I S H M E N T S O F M O N T R E A L P R O T O C O L M E A S U R E S I M P L E M E N T E D B Y U N D P

21

net incremental operating benefit.In this instance the MLF funding grant

amounted to US$109,990 administeredthrough UNDP.

Case Study 2: Syarikat Heng HuatSyarikat Heng Huat is a one hundred percent Malaysian-owned enterprise esta-blished in 1991, located in Seberang Perai,Penang. The objective of this project was tophase out the use of CFC-11 in flexiblepolyurethane box foam and flexiblemoulded polyurethane foam applicationssuch as mattresses, pillows, and cushions.Production is split evenly between the highresilience flexible moulded foam (slab stock)and the flexible box foam which is producedin seven different formulations.

Substitution of methylene chloride haslong been the standard replacementtechnology for CFCs in the manufacture offlexible polyurethane slab stock/box foam.Its utilization has, however, been limited byregulatory restrictions based on its toxiccharacter and consequential processingproblems when used in large quantities.Introduction of further restrictions onmethylene chloride and permissible con-centrations in the workplace led to an activesearch for an alternative.

Under this project, Syarikat Heng Huateliminated the annual average use of 46.2metric tonnes of CFC-11 and the need touse methylene chloride by substituting LowIndex Additive (LIA) technology for the boxfoam and LCD technology for the flexiblemoulded foam/slab stock. The interimsolution using HCFC-141b, while technicallyfeasible, was not adopted owing to theavailability and demonstrated reliability ofthese other permanent solutions.

In this instance, the MLF funding grantamounted to US$272,235, administeredthrough UNDP.

SME Projects Phasing Out Refrigerant CFCsCase Study 3: Phasing Out CFC-11 and CFC-12 in Eleven SMEsThe location of Malaysia in the humid tropicsnecessitates widespread, efficient andreliable cooling and freezing facilities in bothdomestic and commercial contexts. Con-version of the CFC-reliant technologies usedin manufacturing for this market has thereforebeen a priority, particularly amongst SMEsthat are less likely than large companies to beaware of the issues or adequately resourcedto make this transition without assistancefrom independent sources.

This project involved eleven SMEsengaged in the manufacture of commercialrefrigeration equipment of various sizes anduses such as chest freezers, displaycabinets, bottle coolers, and the like. Thecompanies are located in a number of townsscattered throughout Peninsular Malaysia.

All are well established, financially viableenterprises, and 100 per cent Malaysianowned. Each employs between 10 and 35workers and production is wholly for thedomestic market.

At the time the project was launched,these companies had a combined annualproduction of approximately 34,250 refri-geration units. The production of these unitsconsumed a total of 52.54 metric tonnes of CFC-11, used to produce foam forrefrigerator/freezer cabinet linings, and 16.16 metric tonnes of CFC-12 thatconstitutes the refrigerant injected intohermetic compressors.

For the foam operation, polyurethanechemicals were imported, the CFC-11 waspremixed with polyol (a chemical compoundused for custom-made rigid polyurethanesystems with applications for insulation)minimizing evaporation, and the foamchemicals were mixed manually to produce amoulded foam density of about 32–36 kgper cubic metre. The eleven enterprises allused CFC-12 in a range of brands ofimported hermetic compressors.

These SMEs all phased out the use ofCFC-11 and CFC-12 in their manufactureof commercial refrigeration equipment byconverting the foam operations from CFC-11 to HCFC-141b based systems (as aninterim conversion with the expectation of afurther future conversion to a totally CFC-free technology) and the refrigerantoperations from CFC-12 to HFC-134a.

The HCFC-141b technology was adopted,despite HCFC-141b being an ozone-depleting substance, because it was animprovement on the higher level ofdepletion of CFCs. The only zero-ODPtechnology alternatives available for the

foam operations were hydrocarbon-basedsystems. Because the SMEs concerned areall located in congested industrial orcommercial localities, the implementation of the requisite elaborate monitoring, safety,and fire mitigation systems to counter the fire and explosion hazards associatedwith the use of hydrocarbons was notpracticable in their current locations.

The changes that were implementedgenerated significant impacts on both theplant and the processes involved so thatmuch of the consequential cost wasdirected at factory modification as well asthe purchase of new equipment andcomponents. Of the total project cost ofabout US$1.1 million, over $960,000 wasprovided as a grant by the MLF to enablethe transitional modifications to be made.

As in the case studies of foammanufacturers, the MLF funding for theseconversions was administered throughUNDP, with the Malaysian Department ofEnvironment as the national imple-mentation agency on behalf of theGovernment of Malaysia.


22

M e t h y l B r o m i d eMethyl bromide is a broad-spectrumpesticide that has been commercially usedfor more than 50 years to control a widespectrum of pests including fungi,bacteria, soil-borne viruses, insects, mites,nematodes and rodents. Its characteristicsas a fumigant also mean that it is versatile,penetrative, and convenient for reachingrelatively inaccessible storage locations inbuildings and vehicles. The treatmentperiod, including ventilation and aeration,can vary from 2–3 hours to 4 daysdepending on the targeted pests, theconcentrations required for efficacy, andvarious specifications and regulations. Itsdamaging effect on the Earth’s ozone layerwas recognized only at the beginning ofthe 1990s.

Methyl bromide was the last substancebut one to be added to the initial list for whichproduction and consumption are regulatedunder the Montreal Protocol. Methyl bromidewas first included in the schedule of ODSsin the Protocol via the CopenhagenAmendment 1992. At a subsequent meeting

in Montreal, control measures for methylbromide were established for Article 5countries. These controls required de-veloping countries to freeze production andconsumption in 2002 at 1995–8 levels, witha 20 per cent reduction by 2005 and totalphase-out by 2015 (Table 2).

Malaysia does not produce any methylbromide itself but imports its requirementsmainly from Belgium and China. Theimportation of all pesticides in Malaysia is regulated under the Pesticides Act 1974as amended in 2004, and monitoring of

23


Source: updated from Pesticides Board, Malaysian Department of Agriculture, cited in Ridzuan and Khairun, 2006.

Year19901991199219931994199519961997

2434525863564246

Imports and Consumption Year19981999200020012002200320042005

6193

101120182166184270

Imports and Consumption

Table 4Malaysia’s Importation and Consumption of Methyl Bromide, 1990–2005 (metric tonnes)

this particular substance is relativelystraightforward since only two importers of methyl bromide are registered under thePesticides Act.

Malaysia recorded an increase in the use of methyl bromide from 1990 to 1994but then experienced a reduction through 1995 to a mere 42 metric tonnes in 1996.However, this modest level was followed bya steep increase to 2002, and a further large increase to 270 metric tonnes in 2005(Table 4).

The substantial increase in Malaysia’simportation and consumption of methylbromide over the period of just 10 yearsfrom 1996 to 2005 is dramatically illustratedin Figure 6.

QPS and Non-QPS UsesExemptions for ‘critical use’ are underconsideration for non-Article 5 (i.e. indus-

trialized) countries, but would not apply toArticle 5 (i.e. developing) countries until theirtotal phase-out date. The ‘critical use’exemption is granted only where no viable,proven alternative is available. Quarantineand pre-shipment (QPS) uses of methylbromide are currently exempt from thesecontrols to allow fumigation of pests notpresent in a destination country and tomeet phytosanitary regulations before (pre-shipment) or after (quarantine) delivery. QPSuses are estimated to constitute about22 per cent of global methyl bromide use.

As noted above, the four years 1995–8were critical for Malaysia (and otherdeveloping countries) in determining thebenchmark against which usage from 2002to 2004 would be set, with a 20 per centreduction by 2005 (and total phase-out by2015). In those years Malaysia used only205 metric tonnes of methyl bromide, an

24


300

250

200

150

100

50

1990 1995 2000 20050

Figure 6 Malaysia’s Importation and Consumption of Methyl Bromide, 1990–2005 (metric tones)

Source: Updated from Pesticides Board, Malaysian Department of Agriculture, cited in Ridzuan and Khairun, 2006.

25


Source: Pesticides Board, Malaysian Department of Agriculture.

Quarantine and Pre-ShipmentTypes of Commodities TreatedTimber and timber productsGrain (rice, wheat, maize) Animal feedGrowing media (vermiculite, compost, cocoa peat)Equipment and shipping containersGunny sackPallet and crate (wood packaging material)Fruit for exportImported

– fruit and vegetables– bulbs, corms, tubers, and rhizomes– seeds– nursery stock– dried foodstuffs

Total Quarantine and Pre-Shipment (QPS) (per cent)

Non-Quarantine and Pre-Shipment (non-QPS) (per cent)

Total Methyl Bromide used (metric tonnes)

25.72.0

–0.6

22.1–

38.0–

0.70.40.51.12.1

93.26.8

270

37.91.00.20.9

35.20.1

14.21.8

91.38.7

184

45.44.00.61.3

33.90.26.6

–

92.08.0

166

40.94.50.31.9

38.70.43.3

–

90.010.0182

Year (per cent)2005200420032002

Table 5 Uses of Methyl Bromide in Malaysia, 2002–2005

average of 51.25 metric tonnes a year.However, since QPS uses are exempt fromthese restrictions, most of the escalation inuse was unaffected by the MontrealProtocol controls on methyl bromide. Totalusage and specific QPS applications ofmethyl bromide from 2002 (the year inwhich the restrictions were implemented) to2005 under the super-vision of the PlantQuarantine Authority are listed in Table 5.

As Table 5 demonstrates, non-QPS uses(those subject to the controls) were only 10per cent of the total usage in 2002 andcomprised less than that percentage shareof total use in the following years. Theactual amounts being used are relativelysmall and far less than the permissible

levels under the Montreal Protocol controlsas shown in Table 6.

The strategies being adopted in Malaysiafor risk reduction from methyl bromide useinvolve the Department of Agriculture, othergovernment departments, research insti-tutions and other agencies utilizing bothlegislative and non-legislative measures.

Presently, there are two laws in operationin the country for the control of metylbromide. The Pesticide Act 1974, which isimplemented by the Department ofAgriculture, is the main Act that controlsimportation of methyl bromide and theHydrogen Cyanide (fumigation) Ordinance1953 which controls the fumugation ofpremises including ships (the license is

26


Source: Pesticides Board, Malaysian Department of Agriculture.

Types of Use and Permissible Usage

Non-Quarantine and Pre-Shipment (non-QPS) usePermissible non-QPS use (1995–8 average and 20% reduction, i.e. 11.68 metric tonnes, by 2005)

18.0619.4

16.7024.3

13.3124.3

18.2424.3

Year (metric tonnes)2005200420032002

Table 6 Non-Quarantine and Pre-Shipment (non-QPS) Use of Methyl Bromide in Malaysia, 2002–2005

Table 7 Examples of Alternatives to the Use of Methyl Bromide

Crops and CommoditiesCROPSCrops

Tobacco

Cut flowers

DURABLE COMMODITIESStored Products

Timber

Alternative farming methods with broad applicability to horticultural production includesorganic farming, hydroponics, and fertigation (the application of nutrients through irrigationsystems), especially in the production of vegetablesEstablishing tobacco plant seedlings using a soil-less plant technology at the nurserystage has been widely achieved using a float system. Most growers have already adoptedalternative control methods to replace the use of methyl bromide for fumigating the soil.For floriculture, Basamid Granular soil fumigant is activated by contact with moisture. Theactive ingredient is transformed into a gas that possesses broad-spectrum soil sterilizingproperties against undesirable soil organisms.

For stored durable commodities, phosphine is an effective fumigant commonly distributedin pellet and sachet forms and readily available in Malaysia.The main potential alternatives to methyl bromide for timber treatment are phosphine and heat treatment.

Alternative Processes and Procedures

issued by the Ministry of Health).For example, UNDP is assisting the

Malaysian Government in implementing twoprojects to phase out all remaining uses ofmethyl bromide in timber, turf nurseries, andgolf-course maintenance. The projects aimto identify potential alternatives to methylbromide and to develop protocols for theirsafe use. Looking to the longer term, aphase-out strategy is also being developed

for non-QPS uses involving the de-velopment of a legal framework andidentification of alternative measures thatwill be effective for fumigation and pest-control purposes (Table 7).

The key to identifying alternatives is tofocus on the pests that methyl bromide isbeing used to control and then to identifyequally effective substances or measuresto replace it.

D i f f i c u l t i e s w i t h H a l o nP h a s e - O u t P r o j e c t sWhile modifications to the productiontechnology in the manufacturing sectorproceeded relatively expeditiously, thedisposal of existing equipment has provedmuch more problematic. A recovery andrecycling project was approved early in1992 and implemented by the World Bank.A programme initially introduced to addressthe serious problem of phase-out anddisposal of more than one million fireextinguishers with 2,000–3,000 metrictonnes of halon-1211 was subsequentlyexpanded to include halon-1301 disposalas well. Problems ensued with accumulationof extinguishers at fire stations, leaking ofdiscarded appliances, and breakdown ofrecovery and storage equipment.

Malaysia has until the beginning of 2010to complete the phase-out of all halonappliances but achieving this schedule willdepend on the efficiency of the recovery andrecycling equipment, capacity of holdingtanks, recycling capabilities, and availabilityof the necessary technical backup.

M o n i t o r i n g D i s p o s a l o fR e d u n d a n t a n d P h a s e d - O u tS u b s t a n c e s a n d E q u i p m e n tThere are difficult issues facing alldeveloping countries as they attempt tomeet the schedule of the Montreal Protocolphase-out requirements. Limited allocationof scarce resources for implementation ofthe phase-out process makes efficientmonitoring and enforcement difficult.Generally, the manufacturing sector isrelatively easy to regulate and oversee,partly because numbers of manufacturers

are not large, but also because factories arereadily identifiable and direct imports ofequipment and chemicals can be tracked.

Monitoring and enforcement amongconsumers and the servicing sector, andsupervision of recovery and recyclingactivities are more problematic. Hoardingto postpone the switch to alternativetechnologies; banking of redundantchemicals; and difficulties in decontam-

27

I S S U E S A N D C H A L L E N G E S I N I M P L E M E N T I N G T H E M O N T R E A L P R O T O C O L

• Quality of products and services has improved.• Better technologies and methods of production have been introduced.• Consultants have

– recommended more efficient methods of production;– provided training on the use of new equipment.

• Book value of a company’s assets has increased as old equipment has been replaced.

• Public awareness of ODP has been raised and evidence provided in the local market of environmentally friendly practices through

– CFC-free labelling;– accreditation by Standard and Industrial Research Institute of

Malaysia (SIRIM) of company use of eco-friendly CFC-freeproducts in the manufacture of goods.

B e n e f i t s a n d A d v a n t a g e s o f A d o p t i o n o f N o n - O z o n e - D e p l e t i n g S u b s t a n c e s

inating, recycling, and otherwise disposingof obsolescent equipment all representrecurrent problems for Malaysia and othercountries in the region.

C o n s o l i d a t i n g S t r u c t u r e sa n d A c h i e v e m e n t sMalaysia has not only played an active rolewithin the UNEP and MLF, participating inthe MLF’s Executive Committee tosafeguard and promote the interests ofArticle 5 (developing) countries, but alsocontributed to networking on ozoneprotection in the region particularly throughthe South-East Asia and Pacific (SEAP)Network. At a Network meeting in October2006, the group identified challenges stillahead for countries in the region and theseare outlined in the following sections. Sinceprogress to date varies significantlybetween countries, applicability in detailmay also vary, but the fundamentalprinciples and overall aims are relevantregion-wide.

Efficacy of Recovery and RecyclingProcedures• Recover and recycle ODS waste,

including obsolescent equipment,appropriately and efficiently:– prevent indiscriminate dumping of old

CFC-based equipment;– provide appropriate procedures for

handling and disposing of anycontaminant and unused ODSs;

– provide appropriate procedures forthe disposal of old equipment andspare parts.

• Prevent illegal trade in ODSs:– follow the Prior Informal Consent (PIC)

procedure for any legal trade inhazardous industrial chemical andhazardous pesticides.

Sustainability of Structure• Mainstream the Montreal Protocol

implementation procedures intogovernment institutions:– seek government funding of the

National Ozone Unit (in Malaysia, theOzone Protection Section) withoutcontinued support from the MLF orother external agencies;

– expand resources for enforcement ofODS regulations at local/state level;

– strengthen regional cooperationthrough improved networking.

• Maintain annual data collection, analysis,and reporting.

• Deploy National Ozone Unit (OzoneProtection Section) resources to supportimplementation of other MultilateralEnvironmental Agreements (MEAs).

• Raise public awareness of issues.• Publicize updates of ozone science and

research.• Include ozone science in education

curricula.

28


Sustainability of Achievements• Manage sector servicing remaining

CFC-based equipment:– maintain industry/product standards in

monitoring and surveillance of non-CFC usage in motor vehicles andrelated products;

– identify and recommend alternativerefrigerants with minimal environmentalimpact.

• Achieve comprehensive monitoring andenforcement of regulations:– enhance performance and monitoring

of effectiveness of national policy tocomply with global obligations;

– improve monitoring of equipment andlabelling of refrigerants and preventexport of discontinued ODSs;

– strengthen legal enforcement frame-work to control mislabelling, dumping,and trading in prohibited goods;

– strengthen institutional enforcement bylocal government inspectors, police,the judiciary, and the prosecution.

While acknowledging the desirability ofachieving all these objectives in an efficientand timely way, all countries in the SEAPNetwork suffer from a severe shortage ofresources, including personnel, devoted tothis task. National Ozone Units areseverely understaffed and in mostinstances have no scientific or technicalsupport at all. The consequence of this isthat a few administrators are responsiblefor identifying local issues like banking andhoarding, dumping and trading, recoveryand recycling, regulation and enforcement,raising awareness and offering professionaladvice—without adequate professional,technical or legal back-up. The clear

implication is that capacity building shouldbe high on the list of priorities in each of these countries, many of whichotherwise have the institutional structurein place, to fulfil the wide range of roles and responsibilities that the regulatoryprovisions require.

29

I S S U E S A N D C H A L L E N G E S I N I M P L E M E N T I N G T H E M O N T R E A L P R O T O C O L

The MLF supports the provision of funding to developing countriesspecifically to strengthen partner institutions as part of the process ofimplementing the Montreal Protocol. Funding is provided through thesupporting agencies (UNEP, UNDP, UNIDO, and WB) to support theinstitutions created to phase out ODSs. Capacity building also extends tothe enterprise level through technical assistance aimed at introducingnew processes, improving the quality of manufactured products, orimplementing best practices.

Capacity building allows governments to implement the following

• permits for production, import or export of ODSs;• bans or controls on use of ODSs;• certification of technicians qualified to use or recycle ODSs;• economic incentives, taxes, and fees to encourage reductions in ODSs;• procurement preferences for products free of ODSs, especially by

government agencies and the military;• mobilization of industry through workshops, networking, working

groups, sectoral associations, and company pledges;• campaigns to raise public awareness through advertising and other

promotional campaigns;• labelling requirements empowering consumers to make appropriate

choices;• support for research and development into and approval of alternatives

to ODSs;• promotion of new standards to limit use of ODSs;• revisions to health and safety regulations;• creation of ‘banks’ of controlled substances from which industry can

draw its quotas• provision of professional advice and enforcement of regulations.

C a p a c i t y B u i l d i n g

In a report by the Intergovernmental Panelon Climate Change (IPCC), in collaborationwith the Technology and EconomicAssessment Panel (TEAP), it was noted thatemissions of CFCs and their replacementsare being reduced successfully and thatthey can be further minimized by:• improving the containment of chemicals

to prevent leaks, evaporation, andemissions of unintended by-products;

• reducing the amounts needed in anyparticular type of equipment;

• promoting more end-of-life recovery,recycling, and destruction of substances;

• increasing the use of ammonia and otheralternative substances with a lower orzero global warming potential;

• using various emerging technologies thatavoid gases that deplete the ozone orcontribute to climate change.

P h a s i n g O u t T r a n s i t i o n a lA l t e r n a t i v e s t o O z o n eD e p l e t i n g S u b s t a n c e sAs CFCs, halons, and other destructivechemicals are phased out under theMontreal Protocol, the world’s govern-ments are replacing them with alternativesubstances less damaging to the ozonelayer. Because hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs)and perfluoro-carbons (PFCs) contain nochlorine or bromine (the main ozone-depleting substances), they have beenamong the alternatives considered for the long term. However, like the CFCsthemselves, some of these substitutessuch as hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs),HFCs and PFCs are also powerful green-house gases and must therefore eventuallybe phased out under the Montreal Protocol.

Consequently, after 20 years of protectingthe ozone layer with a new generation ofchemicals, governments have beenconfronted by the fact that these ozone-friendly substitutes for CFCs are alsogreenhouse gases that contribute to global warming.

30

Although climate change and ozone depletion are essentially differentissues, the widespread human use of certain chemicals links themtogether. Ozone depletion is primarily due to a release of gases thatcatalytically destroy the ozone whereas global warming is due to abuild-up of gases that absorb outgoing infrared radiation, especiallyCO2. It is therefore essential that there should be continuous monitoring,research and improved management of this group of extremely usefulsubstances that are implicated in two of the major environmental issuesof the early twenty first century.

O z o n e D e p l e t i o n a n d G l o b a l W a r m i n g

Recognizing the problem of potential global climate change, the WorldMeteorological Organization (WMO) and the United Nations EnvironmentProgramme (UNEP) established the Intergovernmental Panel on ClimateChange (IPCC) in 1988. It is open to all members of the United Nationsand WMO.

The role of the IPCC is to assess on a comprehensive, objective,open, and transparent basis the scientific, technical and socio-economicinformation relevant to understanding the scientific evidence of risk ofhuman-induced climate change, its potential impacts, and options foradaptation and mitigation.

The main activity of the IPCC is to provide at regular intervals anassessment of the state of knowledge on climate change. The IPCC alsoprepares for members special reports and technical papers based on thepublished scientific literature, and supports the United NationsFramework Convention on Climate Change through its work onmethodologies for National Greenhouse Gas Inventories. The IPCC’sFourth Assessment Report is scheduled for release in 2007.

I n t e r g o v e r n m e n t a l P a n e l o n C l i m a t e C h a n g e

S A F E G U A R D I N G T H E O Z O N E L A Y E R A N D T H E G L O B A L C L I M A T E S Y S T E M

31

T h e S c i e n t i f i c S i t u a t i o n i n 2 0 0 6Our basic understanding that anthro-pogenic ozone-depleting substances havebeen the principal cause of ozone de-pletion over the past decades has beenstrengthened. The following data indicatethat the Montreal Protocol is working: • There is clear evidence of a decrease in

the atmospheric burden of ozone-depleting substances and some earlysigns of stratospheric recovery.

• Ozone-depleting substances are clearlydecreasing in the lower atmosphere.

• Equivalent effective stratospheric chlorinehas also started to decrease.

• The depletion of the global ozone layerhas not worsened.

• UV radiation has decreased since the late1990s in accordance with ozoneincreases at those sites.

The unusually small 2002 Antarctic ozonehole was characterized by a smaller areaand higher ozone levels than observedduring the past decade. This was due tomajor stratospheric sudden warming andnot to changes in ozone-depleting gases;the 2003 and 2005 ozone holes stillexhibited severe depletions.

Bromine is now estimated to beapproximately 60 times as effective aschlorine in global ozone depletion, on a per-atom basis. This value is larger than theeffectiveness of 45 used in the 2002assessment and increases the effective-ness of the Ozone Depletion Potential ofbromine-containing compounds.

Long-term recovery of the ozone layerfrom the effects of ozone-depletingsubstances is expected to span much ofthe twenty first century, and is now

estimated to occur later than projected inthe 2002 assessment. The date whenequivalent effective stratospheric chlorine at mid-latitudes returns to pre-1980 levels isnow calculated to be 2049 or about 5 yearslater than projected in the 2002 assessment.

The return to pre-1980 conditions ofequivalent effective stratospheric chlorinefor the Antarctic vortex is projected to occuraround 2065, more than 15 years later thanthe return of mid-latitude equivalenteffective stratospheric chlorine to pre-1980

In 2005, it was estimated that the contribution currently made to globalwarming by CFCs, their replacements, and other ozone-depletingsubstances was about 10 per cent of the contribution from fossil-fuel-related carbon dioxide emissions, or about 5 per cent of humanity’s totalgreenhouse gas emissions.

C o n t r i b u t i o n o f O z o n e - D e p l e t i n g S u b s t a n c e s t o G l o b a l W a r m i n g


Source: www.theozonehole.com/ozonehole.2006

Figure 7 The Ozone Hole, September 2006, Dobson Units

600

550

500

450

400

350

300

250

200

150

100

32


levels. Potential options for accelerating therecovery of the ozone layer have beenidentified and evaluated, and upper limitsestablished for achievable improvements if: • global anthropogenic production of

ozone-depleting substances were tostop after 2006;

• emissions were eliminated from existingbanks at the end of 2006; or

• global anthropogenic emissions of ozone-depleting substances were to stop after 2006.

Some options show greater effectivenessfor accelerating recovery of the ozone layerthan in previous assessments. Failure tocomply with the Montreal Protocol woulddelay, or could even prevent, recovery ofthe ozone layer.

The role of very short-lived halogenatedsubstances in stratospheric depletion isnow believed to be of greater importancethan previously assessed. Understandingthe interconnections between ozonedepletion and climate change is crucial forprojections of future ozone abundance.

The above information is drawn from the‘Scientific Assessment of Ozone Depletion2006’, Executive Summary, prepared bythe Scientific Assessment Panel of theMontreal Protocol on Substances ThatDeplete the Ozone Layer and released bythe World Meteorological Organization andUnited Nations Environment Programme,August 2006.

Short-Term: 2007–2010Servicing Sector• Minimize risks of alternative refrigerants

contaminating refrigeration and airconditioning equipment.

• Improve servicing practices by introducinglabelling requirements, certification, anddissemination of information.

• Sustain the recovery and recyclingprogramme for unwanted ODSs andODS-containing equipment.

Methyl Bromide• Implement a licensing system to control

importation of methyl bromide.• Track and monitor sale and use of methyl

bromide to prevent QPS imports beingdiverted to non-QPS uses.

• Establish an effective research anddevelopment facility to develop– alternatives for both QPS and non-

QPS applications;– training programmes in effective fumi-

gation methods (e.g. using phosphine)for control of pests;

– cost-effective heat treatment to meetthe phytosanitary requirements of

33


ISPM-15 (a stipulated internationalstandard for export of timber packing,pallets, etc.).

Metered-Dose Inhalers• Develop a transition strategy for patients.• Raise awareness of the issue with doctors,

pharmacies, and other stakeholders.

Long-Term: Post–2010Disposal of Waste• Prevent dumping of old CFC-based

equipment.• Prevent illegal trade in ODS.• Facilitate disposal of old equipment and

spare parts.• Provide for and coordinate contaminant

and unused ODS disposal.

Post-2010 Obligations• Sustain 20 per cent reduction in methyl

bromide and achieve complete phase-outby 2015:– address possibility of controlling QPS

usage;– find optimal alternatives for both QPS

and non-QPS applications.• Achieve HCFC freeze commencing in

2016.• Formulate subsequent HCFC phase-out

strategy.

T h e K y o t o P r o t o c o lBecause of their implications for globalwarming, governments included HFCs andPFCs in the 1992 United Nations Frame-work Convention for Climate Change and inits 1997 Kyoto Protocol (activated in 2005),under which developed countries are to

reduce their collective emissions of sixspecified greenhouse gases by the period2008–12 (Figure 6).

Although the provisions of the KyotoProtocol relate mainly to developedcountries, most members of the UnitedNations have signed and ratified the treaty.The two major exceptions are the UnitedStates and Australia, which have bothsigned but not ratified the treaty.

While there is widespread agreementthat global warming is occurring, there isless consensus on either the role of humanintervention in climate change or whatmeasures, if any, should be taken toameliorate change. This variation inviewpoint and indecision over appropriateaction result partly because scientificknowledge of climate change is far fromcomplete, and also because interpretationsof the available data are contradictory.

Furthermore, the high cost of under-takingeffective measures to lower carbonemissions is often cited as an overwhelmingobjection to implementing official measures.This argument suggests that unfavourableeconomic repercussions would beevidenced in such negative impacts as in-creased unemployment and unacceptableprice increases for consumers. In a majorreport commissioned by the BritishGovernment, The Stern Review: TheEconomics of Climate Change (initially re-leased in October 2006), it was argued thatpostponement of appropriate measures tocombat the causes of climate changewould result in irreversible damage and indirect and indirect costs many timesgreater than the still daunting cost ofimmediate intervention.

34


Figure 8 Greenhouse Gases Identified by the Kyoto Protocol

The six greenhouse gases specified in the Kyoto Protocol for emission reduction are as follows:

Carbon dioxide (CO 2)Carbon dioxide comes from the decay of materials, respiration of plantand animal life, volcanic and thermal venting, and the natural andhuman-induced combustion of materials and fuels. It is removed fromthe atmosphere through photosynthesis and ocean absorption.

Methane (CH4)Methane is a more effective heat-trapping gas. It comes from thedecay of matter without the presence of oxygen. Primary sourcesinclude wetlands, padi fields, animal digestive processes, fossil fuelextraction, and decaying garbage.

Nitrous oxide (N2O)Soils and oceans are the primary natural source of nitrous oxide.Humans contribute through soil cultivation and use of nitrogenousfertilizers, nylon production, and the burning of organic material andfossil fuels.

Hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs) and Perfluorocarbons (PFCs)These gases, collectively known as halocarbons, are human-producedchemical compounds containing members of the halogen family(bromine, chlorine, and fluorine) and carbon. They are some of themost effective heat-trapping greenhouse gases of all, but most of them are already regulated under the MontrealProtocol. These newer gases are regulated under the Kyoto Protocol because although they are ozone-friendly,they are greenhouse-unfriendly.

Sulphur hexafluoride (SF6)Sulphur hexafluoride is emitted by the electric power industry in circuit breakers, gas-insulated substations, andswitchgear. The electricity industry uses a significant percentage of the 6,500–7,500 metric tonnes producedworldwide each year.

Approximately 25 other gases, such as chloroform and carbon monoxide, qualify as climate-changinggreenhouse gases, but only the six listed are released in sufficient quantities to justify regulation under the KyotoProtocol. Water vapour is a very important greenhouse gas, but is not controllable by human intervention.

35

S O U R C E S O F I N F O R M A T I O N

P u b l i c a t i o n s

British Government (2006), The Stern Review: The Economics of Climate Change,Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Chelliah Muthusamy (2003), Country Evaluation Report of Halon Phase-Out in Malaysia,Kuala Lumpur.

Department of Environment Malaysia, Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment(2004), 2004 Annual Report, Kuala Lumpur.

Department of Environment Malaysia, Ministry of Science, Technology and Environment(1999), Malaysia’s Success Story in the Implementation of the Montreal Protocol onSubstances That Deplete the Ozone Layer, Kuala Lumpur.

Ozone Protection Section, Department of Environment Malaysia and World Bank (2003),Malaysia National CFC Phase-Out Plan (NCFCP) 2002–2010, Putrajaya.

Ridzuan Mohamed Ismail and Khairun Muhammad Haji Harman (2006), ‘Proposed NationalStrategy and Legal Framework for Methyl Bromide Phase-Out’, unpublished report, 2006.

UNDP, UNEP, UNIDO, and World Bank (2005), The Montreal Protocol: PartnershipsChanging the World, Montreal.

UNEP (n.d.), ‘The Montreal Protocol on Substances That Deplete the Ozone Layer’, inHandbook of Environmental Law, Nairobi.

–––––– (n.d.), ‘The Vienna Convention for the Protection of the Ozone Layer’, in Handbookof Environmental Law, Nairobi.

36


I n t e r n e t

Centre for Atmospheric Science, University of Cambridge, ‘The Ozone Hole Tour’.www.atm.ch.cam.ac.uk/tour/readme.html

Fahey, D. W. et al., ‘Twenty Questions and Answers About the Ozone Layer’.www.epa.gov/ozone/science/unepSciQandA.pdf

Global Hub for Carbon Commerce.www.co2e.com/common/faq.asp?intPage ElementID=30109&intCategoryID=93

Intergovernmental Panel for Climate Change.www.ipcc.ch/about/about.htm

Scientific Assessment Panel of the Montreal Protocol on Substances That Deplete theOzone Layer, ‘Scientific Assessment of Ozone Depletion: 2006’, Executive Summary,Released by the World Meteorological Organization and United Nations EnvironmentProgramme, August 2006.http://ozone.unep.org/Publications/Assessment_Reports/2006/Scientific_Assessment_2006_Exec_Summary.pdf

UNDP Montreal Protocol Unit. undp.org/montrealprotocol/

UNEP ‘New Report on How to Save the Ozone Layer while Combating Climate Change’. www.unep.org/Documents.Multilingual/Default.Print.asp?DocumentID=430

UNEP Ozone Secretariat, ‘Questions and Answers About the Effects of the Depletion of theOzone Layer on Humans and the Environment’.www.ozone.unep.org/Public_Information /eeapfaq2002.pdf

United States Environmental Protection Agency, ‘Ozone Depletion. Myth: Volcanoes andthe Ocean are Causing Ozone Depletion’.www.epa.gov/ozone/science/volcano.html

World Meteorological Organization and United Nations Environment Programme,Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change / Technology and Economic AssessmentPanel ‘Special Report 2005’ Safeguarding the Ozone Layer and the Global Climate System:Issues Relating to Hydrofluorocarbons and Perfluorocarbons: Summary for Policymakers.www.ipcc.ch/press/SPM/pdf

www.theozonehole.com/ozonehole.2006

1. Malaysia’s Peat Swamp Forests: Conservation and SustainableUse, Kuala Lumpur, 2006, 40pp.

2. Achieving Industrial Energy Efficiency in Malaysia, Kuala Lumpur,2006, 44pp.

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P R E V I O U S R E P O R T S I N T H I S U N D P S E R I E S

United Nations Development ProgrammeWisma UN, Block C, Kompleks Pejabat Damansara Jalan Dungun, Damansara Heights, 50490 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia.

Tel: 03 2095 9122 Fax: 03 2095 2870 www.undp.org.my

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PROTECTING THE OZONE LAYER - CETESB€¦ · Protection of the Ozone Layer 13 Figure 4 The Ozone...

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Transcript of PROTECTING THE OZONE LAYER - CETESB€¦ · Protection of the Ozone Layer 13 Figure 4 The Ozone...