Primary Agriculture Fertilise Soil & Attend to Basic Plant ... · Have a basic understanding of...

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LLeeaarrnneerr GGuuiiddee PPrriimmaarryy AAggrriiccuullttuurree

FFeerrttiilliissee SSooiill && AAtttteenndd ttoo BBaassiicc PPllaanntt NNuuttrriittiioonn

My Name: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

My Workplace: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Commodity: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Date: . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

NQF Level: 1 US No: 116206

The availability of this product is due to the financial support of the National Department of Agriculture and the AgriSETA. Terms and conditions apply.

Version: 01 Version Date: July 2006

22Fertilise soil and attend to basic plant nutrition

Primary Agriculture NQF Level 1 Unit Standard No: 116206

BBeeffoorree wwee ssttaarrtt…… Dear Learner,

This Learner Guide contains all the information to acquire all the knowledge and skills leading to the unit standard:

Title: Fertilise soil and attend to basic plant nutrition

US No: 116206 NQF Level: 1 Credits: 5

The full unit standard is attached at the end of this Learning Guide. Please read the unit standard at your own time. Whilst reading the unit standard, make a note of your questions and aspects that you do not understand, and discuss it with your facilitator.

This unit standard is one of the building blocks in the qualifications listed below. Please mark the qualification you are currently doing:

Title ID Number NQF Level Credits Mark

National Certificate in Animal Production 48970 1 120

National Certificate in Mixed Farming Systems 48971 1 120

National Certificate in Pant Production 48972 1 120

Please mark the learning program you are enrolled in:

Your facilitator should explain the above concepts to you.

You will also be handed a Learner Workbook. This Learner Workbook should be used in conjunction with this Learner Guide. The Learner Workbook contains the activities that you will be expected to do during the course of your study. Please keep the activities that you have completed as part of your Portfolio of Evidence, which will be required during your final assessment.

You will be assessed during the course of your study. This is called formative assessment. You will also be assessed on completion of this unit standard. This is called summative assessment. Before your assessment, your assessor will discuss the unit standard with you.

EEnnjjooyy tthhiiss lleeaarrnniinngg eexxppeerriieennccee!!

Are you enrolled in a: Yes No

Learnership?

Skills Program?

Short Course?




HHooww ttoo uussee tthhiiss gguuiiddee …… Throughout this guide, you will come across certain re-occurring “boxes”. These boxes each represent a certain aspect of the learning process, containing information, which would help you with the identification and understanding of these aspects. The following is a list of these boxes and what they represent:

What does it mean? Each learning field is characterized by unique terms and definitions – it is important to know and use these terms and definitions correctly. These terms and definitions are highlighted throughout the guide in this manner.

Examples of certain concepts or principles to help you contextualise them easier, will be shown in this box.

You will be requested to complete activities, which could be group activities, or individual activities. Please remember to complete the activities, as the facilitator will assess it and these will become part of your portfolio of evidence. Activities, whether group or individual activities, will be described in this box.

This box indicates a summary of concepts that we have covered, and offers you an opportunity to evaluate your own progress and / or to ask questions to your facilitator if you are still feeling unsure of the concepts listed.

MMyy NNootteess …… You can use this box to jot down questions you might have, words that you do not understand,

instructions given by the facilitator or explanations given by the facilitator or any other remarks that

will help you to understand the work better.

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WWhhaatt aarree wwee ggooiinngg ttoo lleeaarrnn?? What will I be able to do? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

Learning Outcomes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

Soil Fertilisation & Plant Nutrition – An Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

Session 1: Apply Appropriate Nutrient Substances to Soils or Crops . . . . . . . . . . . . 7

Explore Soil Nutrients; Plant Nutrition and Soil Fertility; Chemical Fertilisers [Single and Mixtures]; Organic Soil Improvement Methods and Substances and Techniques; Methods and Techniques of Application of Fertiliser; How to Measure Correctly and Why it is Necessary to Measure Correctly.

Session 2: How to Make Compost and When to Use it . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24

How to Make Compost; Making a Compost Heap; The Importance of Carbon-Nitrogen Ratios in Organic Compost; The Importance of Soil Organic Matter; How to Manage the Composting Process; How to Store Manure so that Nutrients are not Lost.

Session 3: Basic Symptoms of Nutritional Deficiencies in Different Crops . . . . . . . . 35

Symptoms of Nutritional Deficiencies; Characteristics of Nutritional Deficiencies; The Importance of the Position of Discoloured Leaves; Fruit/Plant Abnormalities Due to Nutritional Deficiencies.

Session 4: A Basic Understanding of Soil Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41

Basics of Soil Properties; Soil Texture and Structure; Tests & Observations to Determine Soil Composition and Texture; Water Holding and Drainage Capacity of Different Soil Types; Putting the Pieces Together.

Session 5: Perform the Most Basic Methods of Soil Preparation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56

Basic Methods of Soil Preparation; The Function and Correct Use of Simple Ploughing Tools; The Use of Hand-Held Tools Such as Picks, Shovels and Forks; Animal Drawn Tools for Soil Preparation; Prepare a Piece of Ground to Achieve the Appropriate Tilth, Texture & Friability.

Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65

Terms & Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66

Acknowledgements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66

Excerpt: SAQA Unit Standard 116205*

*No prior learning assumed to be in place.




WWhhaatt wwiillll II bbee aabbllee ttoo ddoo?? When you have achieved this unit standard, you will:

be able to apply soil nutrient preparations in a safe, effective and responsible manner to the benefit of plant/crop growth.

gain specific knowledge and skills in soil fertilisation and plant nutrition and will be able to operate in a plant production environment implementing sustainable and economically viable production principles.

be capacitated to gain access to the mainstream agricultural sector, in plant production, impacting directly on the sustainability of the sub-sector. The improvement in production technology will also have a direct impact on the improvement of agricultural productivity of the sector.

LLeeaarrnniinngg OOuuttccoommeess When you have achieved this unit standard you must be able to:

Use specific types of nutrient substances.

Work within identified safety standards.

Measure accurately.

Apply specified substances.

Have a basic understanding of soil profiles, structure and texture, about the physical components of soil, the biological components of soil, how soil is formed, how nutrients are absorbed by plants.

How to conduct simple soil tests and observations in order to make basic soil assessments based on texture, colour, vegetative cover, and smell.

How seeds germinate and what kind of environment is needed to achieve maximum and effective germination and early root growth.

What tools to achieve with which soil preparation results.

Know the difference between wanted and unwanted vegetation.

SSooiill FFeerrttiilliissaattiioonn && PPllaanntt NNuuttrriittiioonn –– AAnn IInnttrroodduuccttiioonn

Have you ever planted a seed or seeds in soil and watched in amazement as tiny chutes begin to emerge from the soil and then eventually grow into a healthy, stable plant? Did you know that besides needing water (which is very important!) the type of soil that plants grow in and what actually goes on in soil determines how well plants grow? Five factors determine what types of soil form on Earth and critters that live in the soil are part of the amazing soil forming process:




Parent Material - the primary material from which the soil is formed. Soil parent material could be bedrock, organic material, an old soil surface, or a deposit from water, wind, glaciers, volcanoes, or material moving down a slope. Bedrock is broken down as water, wind, or other weathering processes wear away mineral particles from rocks.

Organisms - Soil is also formed as organic matter (such as leaves and dead plants) decomposes and as critters living in the soil change the chemistry of soil. Each of these parts work together to make soil that plants can grow well in. Fertile soils are those that have enough Nitrogen (N), Phosphorus (P), and Potassium (K), along with other nutrients that plants take up.

Topography - The location of a soil on a landscape can affect how the climatic processes impact it. Soils at the bottom of a hill will get more water than soils on the slopes, and soils on the slopes that directly face the sun will be drier than soils on slopes that do not. Also, mineral accumulations, plant nutrients, type of vegetation, vegetation growth, erosion, and water drainage are dependent on topographic relief.

Climate - heat, rain, ice, snow, wind, sunshine and other environmental forces break down the parent material and affect how fast or slow soil formation processes go.

Time - All of the above factors assert themselves over time, often hundreds or thousands of years.

Soil and plants play a very important part in the survival of humans and animals. Soil protects plant roots from exposure to the Sun's heat at Earth's surface, soil filters pollution that comes from rain and water runoff from farms. Soil is used to build with and on, and soil is what plants need to grow and be supported while growing. Plants are not only used for food but are also used to make fabrics and dyes, medicines and beauty products, fragrances, rubber and building materials, just to name a few.

The most important function of plants involves photosynthesis. Photosynthesis is a process in which all plants and algae as well as certain types of photosynthetic bacteria produce their own food, and in doing so take in carbon dioxide (CO2) and then release oxygen (O2) into Earth's atmosphere, which many living species on Earth need to survive. You will learn here about three important minerals:

Nitrogen Phosphorus Potassium

Plants must have these nutrients in order to grow healthy and strong.

Now complete activity 1.1 in your workbook

MMyy NNootteess …… . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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SSeessssiioonn 11

In this session we are going to learn how to apply appropriate nutrient substances to soils or crops by exploring:

Soil nutrients

Plant nutrition and soil fertility

Chemical fertilisers [Single and Mixtures]

Organic soil improvement methods and substances and techniques

Methods and techniques of application of fertiliser

How to measuring correctly and knowing why it is necessary to measure correctly.

11..11 EExxpplloorree SSooiill NNuuttrriieennttss

The most important plant nutrients elements are:

Nitrogen (N),

Phosphate (P), and

Potassium (K).

NNiittrrooggeenn ((NN)) Nitrogen helps plants grow faster but too much of it will burn the roots and prevent flowering.

AAppppllyy AApppprroopprriiaattee NNuuttrriieenntt SSuubbssttaanncceess ttoo SSooiillss oorr CCrrooppss

After completing this session, you will be able to: SO 1: Apply appropriate nutrient substances to soils or crops under close supervision.

Please complete practical activity 1.2 in your workbook

MMyy NNootteess …… . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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Too little nitrogen will cause leaves to turn lighter green and cause the older leaves to turn yellow.

The best type of nitrogen-rich fertilizer should have slow release formula printed on the bag label.

It dissolves slowly so the plants don't get too much nitrogen at once.

Slow release fertilizer is, however, usually more expensive.

PPhhoosspphhoorruuss ((PP)) Phosphorus plays an important role in cell division.

It is therefore needed for root growth, leaf formation and flower, fruit and seed development.

Plants that aren't getting enough phosphorus will have darker old leaves or develop a purplish colour.

The plant will start to produce poorer flowers and fruit when the needs more phosphorus.

Phosphorus moves very slowly in the soil and needs to be added to the soil during tilling

PPoottaassssiiuumm ((KK)) Potassium plays a role in sugar and starch formation and plants need higher concentrations potassium during flowering and fruiting.

Too little potassium will show up as a general slowing of growth and leaves that are smaller than usual. Fruit production is lower.

11..22 PPllaanntt NNuuttrriittiioonn aanndd SSooiill FFeerrttiilliittyy At least fifteen mineral elements are required by plants to grow and to produce a crop:

NON-MINERALS MINERAL ELEMENTS

Carbon (C) Hydrogen (H) Oxygen (O2)

Fixed during photosynthesis

Macro-elements Nitrogen (N) Phosphorus (P) Potassium (K) Calcium (Ca) Magnesium (Mg) Sulphur (S)

Micro-elements Copper (Cu) Boron (B) Zinc (Zn) Iron (Fe) Manganese (Mn) Molybdenum (Mo)




WWhheerree ddoo ppllaannttss ggeett tthheessee eelleemmeennttss ffrroomm??:: From salts dissolved in the ground water (or fertigation solution)

When a salt dissolves in water it dissociates into its two ions

E.g. KNO3 K+ and NO3-

Plants cannot absorb salts, but are able to absorb ions

Ions and the salts from which they derive:

Element Ion Salts mostly applied

N NO3-

NH4+ NH4NO3, CaNO3, KNO3

P PO43- Different phosphates e.g. MgSO4

K K+ Potassium salts e.g. KCl

Mg Mg2+ Magnesium salts e.g. MgSO4

S SO42- Different sulphates e.g. CaSO4

Ca Ca2+ Calcium salts e.g. CaSo4, CaCl2

Zn Zn2+ Salts of zinc e.g. ZnSO4

Mn Mn2+ Salts of manganese e.g. MnSO4

Cu Cu2+ Salts of copper e.g. CuSo4

Fe Fe3+ Salts of iron e.g. FeSo4

B BO3- Boric acid

Mo MoO42- Sodium molibdate

Examples of nutrient levels in young mature leaves of some plants:

N P K Ca Mg S Fe Mn Zn B Cu Plant species % µg/g (mg/kg)

Tomato 3.2-4.8

0.32- 0.45

2.5-4.2

1.7-4.0

0.45-0.70

0.60-1.0

50-250

35-100

20-50 20-50 5-20

Alfalfa/ Lucerne

3.0-4.5

0.25-0.50

2.5-3.8

1.0-2.5

0.3-0.8

0.3-0.5

50-250

25-100

25-70 6-20 30-80

Soybean 4.0-5.0

0.31-0.50

2.0-3.0

0.45-2.0

0.25-0.55

0.25-0.55

50-250

30-200

25-50 25-60 8-20

Maize 2.5-3.5

0.20- 0.50

1.5-3.0

0.2-1.0

0.16- 0.40

0.16- 0.50

25-300

20-200

20-70 6-40 6-40

Apple 1.8- 2.4

0.15-0.30

1.2- 2.0

1.0-1.5

0.25--0.50

0.13-0.30

50-250

35-100

20-50 20-50 5-20




LLiimmee -- WWhhaatt iiss aaggrriiccuullttuurraall lliimmee??

An agricultural liming material is defined as a material whose Calcium and Magnesium compounds are capable of neutralising soil acidity. These materials include limestone and chalk, quicklime, hydrated lime, marl, shells and by-products such as slag.

The following must be considered when purchasing agricultural lime:

Soil Analysis (pH, soil structure etc.) Target pH Liming material to be used (Neutralising Value, sizing, composition) Cost comparison Legal requirements (Fertiliser Regulations)

Lime effectiveness

The effectiveness of a liming material is dependent upon its neutralising value, the fineness of grinding, reactivity and the relative hardness of the parent rock.

Neutralising values

The neutralising value of a liming material is expressed in terms of the percentage of calcium oxide equivalent. Thus, 100 kg of a liming material with a neutralising value of 52% will have the same neutralising value as 52 kg of pure calcium oxide (CaO). Neutralising value is determined in the laboratory and is calculated from the results of the chemical reaction with known strength hydrochloric acid, and always refers to the sample 'as received' rather than on a dry matter basis.

Reactivity

The effectiveness and speed of reaction of a liming material can be quantified in the laboratory using the "Reactivity Test". The results obtained from this test may be used to estimate the behaviour of a liming material in the soil. These results bear a good correlation with results obtained from long-term pot trials.

The Reactivity Test involves the decomposition of the liming material in hydrochloric acid under stable pH conditions. The acid consumption during a given time is a direct criterion for the reaction time of the liming material being tested. The results of the test are expressed as a percentage, and they compare the speed and effectiveness of the sample with pure precipitated calcium carbonate.

pH and Lime

The degree of soil acidity or alkalinity is measured by what is known as the pH scale. A figure of pH 7 represents a materials relationship to the neutral position of pure water at pH 7.0. Figures below 7 indicate increasing acidity and above 7 increasing alkalinity.

The optimum for general cropping is between pH 6.8 and 7.0. For permanent grassland the optimum pH is slightly lower.




LLiiqquuiidd FFeerrttiilliisseerr

Agro-Culture Liquid Fertilizers plant nutrition brings crop fertility management into the 21st century. Today’s handful of widely used fertilizer products dates back to the last century. Major breakthroughs in crop protection, genetics, and farm equipment have revolutionized crop production since the 1950’s, yet fertilizer has been essentially status quo, with no effective new products to match the productivity gains in other inputs…except for Liquid Fertilizers.

The concept brings technology to fertilizer. Extensive research has identified a unique set of raw materials, manufactured with new processes and strict quality controls that give producers usability and flexibility that the older materials can’t match.

11..33 CChheemmiiccaall FFeerrttiilliisseerrss [[SSiinnggllee aanndd MMiixxttuurreess]] CChheemmiiccaall FFeerrttiilliizzeerr oorr OOrrggaanniicc FFeerrttiilliizzeerr

A chemical fertilizer is defined as any inorganic material of wholly or partially synthetic origin that is added to the soil to sustain plant growth.

Many artificial fertilizers contain acids, such as sulphuric acid and hydrochloric acid, which tend to increase the acidity of the soil, reduce the soil's beneficial organism population and interfere with plant growth.

Generally, healthy soil contains enough nitrogen-fixing bacteria to fix sufficient atmospheric nitrogen to supply the needs of growing plants. However, continued use of chemical fertilizer may destroy these nitrogen-fixing bacteria. Furthermore, chemical fertilizers may affect plant health.

For example, citrus trees tend to yield fruits that are lower in vitamin C when treated with high nitrogen fertilizer. Fungus and bacterial disease resulting from the lack of trace elements in soil regularly dosed with chemical fertilizers is not uncommon. This lack of vital micronutrients can generally be attributed to the use of chemical fertilizers.

Trace elements

Trace elements make up a reasonable part of most types of fertiliser. In soils that are too acid or too alkali, some elements become unavailable to plants; soil bacteria stop working and are unable to break down matter to release the nutrients your plants require for good health, (even though the nutrients are in the soil). Some elements build up to toxic levels. These are called trace elements (see table on next page):




Natural Sources of Trace Elements for Composting

Sulphur Cabbage Leaves

Iron Stinging nettle, Compost, Dandelion, Horse manure, Spinach

Boron Beetroot leaves, Horse manure, Compost, Sea grass, Untreated sawdust

Manganese Chick weed, Compost, Untreated sawdust

Copper Stinging nettle, Yarrow, Dandelion, Chick weed, Horse manure, Compost, Untreated sawdust

Zinc Horse manure, Corn stalks, Compost, Untreated sawdust

Calcium Dandelion, Lucerne hay, Comfrey, Horse manure, Compost, Sea grass, Blood & Bone

Molybdenum Cornstalks, Compost, Grass clippings

Nitrogen Bird manure, Blood & Bone, Grass clippings

Phosphorus Comfrey, Sea grass, Horse manure, Blood & Bone

Potassium Comfrey, Horse manure, Sea grass

Magnesium Grass clippings, Sea grass

11..44 OOrrggaanniicc SSooiill IImmpprroovveemmeenntt MMeetthhooddss aanndd SSuubbssttaanncceess aanndd TTeecchhnniiqquueess

CCoommppoosstt

Composting is Nature's way of recycling. Composting refers to a solid waste management technique that uses natural processes to convert organic materials to humus through the action of microorganisms. Compost is a mixture that consists largely of decayed organic matter and is used for fertilizing and conditioning of soil.

Compost is thus a mixture of decayed organic matter, high in nutrients. Compost must be at least one year old. When too young, decomposition uses nitrogen after sufficient decomposition, compost releases nitrogen.

Compost is the "Cadillac" of organic fertilizers. Although making compost from a variety of raw materials is possible, the finished products are remarkably similar in their final concentrations of nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium. Composts generally contain a good balance and wide spectrum of nutrients, and they're rich in humus even though their actual nutrient concentrations are relatively low. Composts are available commercially or can be homemade. They can be used along with other fertilizers. Commercial composts typically are made from various kinds of animal manures and lawn and garden wastes. Making your own compost is an ideal way to recycle yard waste and make fertilizer simultaneously — and you always know what ingredients went into the finished product.




OOrrggaanniicc TTeeaass

Compost also makes great tea for your plants. Watering with a compost tea is an easy way to get many of the benefits of compost, without the hassle of moving heavy materials into the garden. Aerating the tea to increase the oxygen content stimulates the production of the compost microbes, making for better tea and healthier plant growth.

MMuullcchhiinngg

Mulching is one of the simplest and most beneficial practices you can use in the garden. Mulch is simply a protective layer of a material that is spread on top of the soil. Mulches can either be organic--such as grass clippings, straw, bark chips, and similar materials--or inorganic--such as stones, brick chips, and plastic. Both organic and inorganic mulches have numerous benefits.

MMuullcchh:: protects the soil from erosion

reduces compaction of clay soils from the impact of heavy rains or irrigation

conserves moisture, reducing the need for frequent watering

maintains a more even soil temperature

prevents weed growth

keeps fruits and vegetables clean thus promoting food safety

provides a "finished" look to the garden in terms of landscaping

Organic mulches also improve the condition of the soil. As these mulches slowly decompose, they provide organic matter which helps keep the soil loose. This improves root growth, increases the infiltration of water, and also improves the water-holding capacity of the soil. Organic matter is a source of plant nutrients and provides an ideal environment for earthworms and other beneficial soil organisms.

While inorganic mulches have their place in certain landscapes, they lack the soil improving properties of organic mulches. Inorganic mulches, because of their permanence, may be difficult to remove if you decide to change your garden plans at a later date.

MMuullcchh MMaatteerriiaallss

You can find mulch materials in your own yard! Lawn clippings make excellent mulch. While not particularly attractive for a flowerbed, they work wonderfully in the vegetable garden. The fine texture allows them to be spread easily even around small plants. However, grass clippings are becoming scarce because of the increased popularity of mulching lawnmowers that provide many of the same benefits of mulching to lawns. Newspaper, as a mulch, works especially well to control weeds. Leaves are another readily available material to use as mulch. Leaf mould, or the




decomposed remains of leaves, gives the forest floor its absorbent spongy structure. Compost makes a wonderful mulch if you have a large supply. Compost not only improves the soil structure but also provides an excellent source of plant nutrients.

Bark chips and composted bark mulch are available at garden centres. These make a neat finish to the garden bed and will eventually improve the condition of the soil. These may last for one to three years or more depending on the size of the chips or how well composed the bark mulch is. Smaller chips tend to be easier to spread, especially around small plants. Depending on where you live, numerous other materials make excellent mulches. Hay and straw work well in the vegetable garden, although they may harbour weed seeds. Seaweed mulch, ground corncobs, and pine needles can also be used. Pine needles tend to increase the acidity of the soil so they work best around acid-loving plants such as rhododendrons and blueberries.

WWhheenn ttoo aappppllyy mmuullcchh

Time of application depends on what you hope to achieve by mulching. Mulches, by providing an insulating barrier between the soil and the air, moderate the soil temperature. This means that a mulched soil in the summer will be cooler than an adjacent unmulched soil; while in the winter, the mulched soil may not freeze as deeply. However, since mulch acts as an insulating layer, mulched soils tend to warm up more slowly in the spring and cool down more slowly in the fall than unmulched soils.

If you are using mulches in your vegetable garden or flower garden, it is best to apply them after the soil has warmed up in the spring. Cool, wet soils tend to slow seed germination and increase the decay of seeds and seedlings. If adding additional layers of mulch to existing perennial beds, wait until the soil has warmed completely.

Mulches used to help moderate winter temperatures can be applied late in the autumn after the ground has frozen but before the coldest temperatures arrive. Applying mulches before the ground has frozen may attract rodents looking for a warm over-wintering site. Delayed applications of mulch should prevent this problem as, hopefully, the creatures would already have found some other place to nest!

Mulches used to protect plants over winter should be loose material such as straw, hay, or pine boughs that will help insulate the plants without compacting under the weight of snow and ice. One of the benefits from winter applications of mulch is the reduction in the freezing and thawing of the soil in the late winter and early spring.

These repeated cycles of freezing at night and then thawing in the warmth of the sun cause many small or shallow rooted plants to be heaved out of the soil. This leaves their root systems exposed and results in injury or death. Mulching helps prevent the rapid fluctuations in soil temperature and reduces the chances of heaving.




AAppppllyyiinngg MMuullcchh

Begin by asking yourself the following questions:

What do I hope to achieve by mulching? Weed control? Moisture retention? Soil improvement? Beautification?

How large is the area to be mulched?

How much mulch will I need to cover the area? Mulch is measured in cubic meter. As an example, if you have an area 10

m by 10 m and you wish to apply 10 cm of mulch, you would need 10 cubic meter (m3).

Determine what mulch material to use and purchase or accumulate what you need.

Mulch can often be purchased bagged or bulk from garden centres. Bulk may be cheaper if you need large volumes and have a way to haul it. Bagged mulch is often easier to handle, especially for smaller projects.

Compost--refer to the paragraph on composting for information on how to make your own compost.

Leaves-- Collect leaves in the autumn. Chop with a lawnmower or shredder. Whole leaves tend to compact if wet

or blow away if dry. Chopping will reduce the volume and facilitate composting.

Compost leaves over winter. Some studies have indicated that freshly chopped leaves may inhibit the growth of certain crops. Therefore, it may be advisable to compost the leaves over winter before spreading them.

Grass clippings- Spread them immediately to avoid heating and rotting.

Newspaper- Save your own newspapers. Only use newspaper text pages (black ink); colour dyes may be harmful to

soil micro flora and fauna if composted and used. Use 3 or 4 sheets together, anchored with grass clippings or other mulch

material to prevent blowing away.

General Guidelines:

a. Do not apply mulch directly in contact with plants. Leave about 5 cm of space next to plants to help prevent diseases flourishing from excessive humidity.

b. Remove weeds before spreading mulch.




Mulch Materials

Material Amount To Apply Notes

Bark mulch 6 – 10 cm Smaller chips are easier to spread, especially around small plants. Excellent for use around trees, shrubs, and perennial gardens. When spreading mulch around trees, keep the mulch 2.5 to 5 cm away from the trunk. A couple cm of mulch is adequate.

There is no need to apply the mulch 15 or 20 cm high, as often is seen.

Wood chips 6 – 10 cm Similar to bark mulch. If using fresh wood chips that are mixed with a lot of leaves, composting may be beneficial.

Leaves 10 – 20 cm Best to chop and compost before spreading. If using dry leaves, apply about 15 cm.

Grass clippings 6 – 8 cm Thicker layers tend to compact and rot, becoming quite slimy and smelly. Add additional layers as clippings decompose. Do not use clippings from lawns treated with herbicides.

Newspaper 1 cm Apply sheets of newspaper and cover lightly with grass clippings or other mulch material to anchor. If other mulch materials are not available, cover edges of paper with soil. Applying on a windy day can be a problem.

Compost 10 – 20 cm Excellent material for enriching soil.

Bark mulch and wood chips are sometimes used with landscape fabric or plastic. The fabric or plastic is laid on top of the soil and then covered with a layer of bark chips. A caution to this practice: while initially the plastic or fabric may provide additional protection against weeds, as the mulch breaks down, weeds will start to grow in the mulch itself. The barrier between the soil and the mulch also prevents any improvement in the soil condition and makes planting additional plants more difficult.

SSoouurrcceess ooff MMuullcchh

Check under mulches or garden centres or nurseries in the Yellow Pages. Your community may also have wood chips from the removal of street trees that are available free to residents.

FFaarrmmeerrss uussee mmuullcchheess iinn mmaannyy wwaayyss

Conservation tillage is a common practice that creates mulch on the soil surface. Unlike the once common practice of ploughing all crop residues into the soil, conservation tillage leaves the crop residue on top of the soil. These pieces of corn stalk, straw, or bean stems help protect the soil against wind and water erosion. Corn crops harvested for the grain return large amounts of residue to the soil




surface and are more effective in preventing soil erosion than crops with fewer residues such as soybeans.

Mulching is a common practice among strawberry growers. In this situation, mulch is used to protect the crop during the winter and to help prevent early blooming of the plants. Plants that bloom too early are more likely to be damaged by spring frosts. The mulch also helps keep the berries cleaner, protecting them from soil splashing on them in the rain.

Inorganic mulches are also widely used in commercial agriculture. Clear plastic mulch can be particularly beneficial in giving warm season crops a head start. The clear plastic acts as a mini-greenhouse, warming the soil underneath it. Particularly where early sweet corn brings a premium price, this practice can give a grower a couple of week’s head start. Also, research is showing that leaving crop residues helps hold carbon in the soil and aids in reducing greenhouse gases.

11..55 MMeetthhooddss aanndd TTeecchhnniiqquueess ooff AApppplliiccaattiioonn ooff FFeerrttiilliisseerr

There are different methods to apply fertilizer to soil. Fertilizers can be applied in several ways. The most important point to remember is to apply them at the proper rate, as over-application can result in plant damage or death. Follow soil test recommendations or manufacturer’s directions.

Some of the common fertilizer application methods are as follows:

BBrrooaaddccaasstt AApppplliiccaattiioonn

Broadcasting refers to uniformly applying the fertilizer over the entire area before planting. This is the safest and easiest method for the small farmer and best accomplished with a mechanical spreader. The fertilizer should be worked into the soil to a depth of 10 – 15 cm.


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Fertilisation: This is the application (adding) fertilizer, containing nutrient elements, to the soil. Different fertilizers contain different nutrient elements.




BBaanndd PPllaacceemmeenntt

Banding fertilizer refers to placement of fertilizer 4 – 8 cm to each side and below the seed at planting. This technique is risky for gardeners to use as placement too close to the seed or at too high rate can cause fertilizer burn and inhibit germination.

SSiiddee ddrreessss AApppplliiccaattiioonn

Side dressing refers to placing the fertilizer beside the row during the growing season. This technique is usually used to apply additional nitrogen during the growing season and is particularly useful for applying nitrogen on sandy soils.

TToopp ddrreessss AApppplliiccaattiioonn

Topdressing is similar to side dressing except that the fertilizer is applied around the plant. Caution: fertilizer applied too close to the plant can cause fertilizer burn.

SSttaarrtteerr SSoolluuttiioonn AApppplliiccaattiioonn ((OOrrggaanniicc TTeeaass))

Starter solution fertilizers are soluble in water, usually high in phosphorus, and applied as a liquid around the plant roots at the time of planting. They are primarily used for vegetable transplants to hasten root development and establishment. Follow manufacturer’s directions for application rates. A general recommendation for 8-16-16 or 15-30-15 is to dissolve 2 tablespoons in 5 litres of water. Then apply 1 cup of the solution around the roots of each transplant.

LLeeaaff nnuuttrriittiioonn Foliar Applications

Foliar fertilizers are dilute solutions applied directly to the leaves. They should not be relied upon to supply the total nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium needs of plants. They can be used to supplement soil applications of these nutrients. Foliar applications of micronutrients, especially iron, may be beneficial when high soil pH conditions make the soil iron unavailable to plant roots.

Applying fertilizer through dripper lines (Fertigation)

It is limited to micro-irrigation systems only – it is not suitable for overhead irrigation or micro-jet irrigation.

Make sure that the fertilizer type is totally soluble in water. Make sure that the fertilizer is properly dissolved before applying Make sure that the dose is correct for the pressure system.




SSlluurrrryy

Slurry generally refers a method whereby fertilizer is too dry to be applied evenly and consistently, and is thus mixed with water to make it more spreadable. It is mostly used for organic fertilsers such as chicken manure *. The manure is often mixed with wood shavings and the wet “slurry” is then spread over a large area or specifically around single plants. This adds great value in terms of Nitrogen contribution. It is most effective for crops such as Legumes, and grasses.

* Not ecologically friendly for bird islands where guano is collected !

11..66 HHooww ttoo MMeeaassuurree CCoorrrreeccttllyy aanndd WWhhyy iitt iiss NNeecceessssaarryy ttoo MMeeaassuurree CCoorrrreeccttllyy

MMiixxiinngg IInnssttrruuccttiioonnss

Follow mixing instructions very carefully as fertilizers can be reactive (explode), or form chemical reactions that might harm you or the plant.

It is important to make sure that you are applying only what your crop needs – if you don’t need Nitrogen, then it would be inappropriate to apply this specific ratio mix. It is also important not to apply fertilizer in excess as this could cause harm to your crop:

For fertilizers or pesticides to be effective, they must be applied uniformly at recommended rates. Equipment (sprayers and spreaders) must be calibrated to ensure adequate application. Misapplication wastes time, material and money, and may harm the applicant or the environment. Liquid application equipment should be calibrated with plain water.

Please complete practical activity 1.4 & 1.5 in your workbook

MMyy NNootteess …… . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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An example of a Fertilizer Ratio is N:P:K = 3:1:1 (100%) (Nitrogen:Phosphate:Potassium = 3:1:1) This means: In one kilogram of fertilizer, 600g of the fertilizer consist of Nitrogen, 200g of Phosphorous and 200g of Potassium. This also means that when we apply this fertilizer, we are applying something with 5 components: 3 of those components are N and 1 is P + 1 is K.




Granular applicators (spreaders) must be calibrated with the actual product.

PPrrooppeerr uussee ooff FFeerrttiilliizzeerrss aanndd PPeessttiicciiddeess

Proper use of fertilizers and pesticides, whether of synthetic or natural origin, contributes to healthy plant growth. Applying too much may cause foliar burns or other toxic reactions in the plant. Using too little may result in damaged plants from inadequate pest control or nutrient deficiencies.

The only way to know just how much fertilizer or pesticide is being applied to the plants to your crop is to calibrate the application equipment. Calibrating an applicator is relatively simple.

This guide outlines the steps for calibrating sprayers used for liquid applications (Figure 1.1) and lawn spreaders used for dry products (Figure 1.2). Always read and follow the product label.

SStteeppss iinn ccaalliibbrraattiinngg aa sspprraayyeerr Adjust the nozzle opening to give the type of spray pattern desired. For hose-end sprayers, adjust the setting to the recommended dilution rate on the product label.

Add a measured amount of plain water to the sprayer or concentrate canister. Use an amount equal to about half the sprayer's capacity.

Pressurize the sprayer. Hand pump canister sprayers or turn water on for hose-end sprayers. Most canister sprayers do not have a pressure gauge. You can tell if you are maintaining a constant amount of pressure by the feel of the tension on the plunger.

Spray the water onto a hard, flat surface such as a driveway. Use the same walking pace you would if applying actual pesticide. Make certain the water is applied uniformly, with no gaps and with only a small amount of overlapping.

After the spray canister is empty, or when the concentrate container of the hose-end sprayer is empty, measure the area covered by the water.

Figure 1.1: Either canister sprayers, left, or hose-end sprayers, right, may be used for liquid applications of fertilizers and pesticides

Figure 1.2: Granular fertilizers, pesticides or combination products are applied with either a rotary spreader, left, or a drop spreader, right




EXAMPLE 1: If you sprayed a band 5m wide by 15m long, you covered 75 square metres: 5m x 15m = 75 square metres. You may want to repeat steps two through five a few times until you get consistent readings. Calculate the amount of liquid coverage per unit area, and record that value for future reference.

Canister sprayer example: Two litres of spray covered 75 square mertes. That means 4 litres of spray will cover 150 square metres

Hose-end sprayer example: One-half cup of water (75 ml) in the concentrate container covered 10 square metres when diluted. (1/2 cup = 24 teaspoons), so each teaspoon covered 0.4 square metres ( 10/24). Measure the area to be sprayed and calculate how much spray will be needed. Mix only the amount of chemical needed to do the job. For large areas, mark off sections with flags to break the yard up into areas no larger than can be covered by one tank full of spray.

Table 1: Useful Measurements and Conversions Area: 1 acre = 13 277.09 square metres and 1 hectare = 10,000 square metres.

Liquid calibration tips:

Rate of liquid applied varies with pressure and size of nozzle opening. Maintain constant, adequate pressure. Keep nozzle clean and setting unchanged for variable nozzles. Avoid excessive spray overlap. Overlapped areas get a double dose. A small overlap is necessary to prevent unsprayed gaps. If good spray coverage is questionable, cut the application rate in half and apply to the same area twice at right angles to one another. Let the first application dry before applying the second. The spray pattern should be continuous and uninterrupted. Keep your walking rate and sprayer wand arm movement constant. Direct the spray pattern away from the applicator. Avoid walking through the spray. Never spray on a windy day. Air movement above 10 miles per hour may cause undesirable drift. Keep a separate set of measuring spoons and cups for pesticide use only. Do not use them for any other purpose. Use a separate sprayer labelled "weed killer only" or "herbicide only" for weed control products. Wear appropriate protective clothing. A long-sleeved shirt, long pants, rubber gloves and waterproof footwear are recommended. Protective eyewear may be necessary. Check the product label for requirements. On trees, shrubs and other upright growing plants, spray until the pesticide solution begins to drip from the leaves. Spray the underside of leaves as well as the top. Clean sprayer thoroughly after each use.

Steps in calibrating a drop spreader:

Mark off a 150 square metres or 304.8 square area on a clean, flat, hard surface such as a driveway. For example, use 5 metres by 15 metres or 10 metres by 15 metres. Set the opening of the spreader by following instructions in the spreader operator's manual or by following instructions on the product bag if any are given.

Note: If no settings are provided on the product bag or in the owner's manual, try adjusting the opening of the spreader to where it is slightly larger than the product particles.

Put a known weight of product into the hopper. Ten or 20 kilograms is a typical amount to use for the calibration test.

Note: If it is more convenient to apply fertilizer by volume measure than to weigh it, the conversion factors shown in Table 2, may be helpful.

Apply the product uniformly to the marked-off area. Keep a steady walking pace. Overlap the wheel tracks from one pass to the next just enough to make certain there are no gaps in coverage or double application of the product. Determine the amount of material applied per square metre using one of these methods: Weigh or measure the material left in the hopper and subtract this from the total added. Sweep up the material spread on the hard surface and weigh or measure.




EXAMPLE 2:

Table 2: Weight per volume relationship of fertilizer and lime

Material Kilogram Liter1 Mixed fertilizers such as 10-6-4, 10-10-10Ammonium sulphate (21-0-0) Muriate of potash (6-0-60) Super phosphates (0-20-0; 0-46-0)

1 1 20-10-10, etc.

Processed manure Urea formaldehyde (38-0-0) Urea (0-45-0) Ammonium nitrate (33-0-0)

1 1-1/3

Potassium sulphate, Limestone

1 3/4

1For smaller quantities, remember 0.5 liters equals 2 cups or 32 level tablespoons.

Steps in calibrating a rotary spreader:

Test the distribution pattern of the spreader by lining out a row of 10 or 12 low, flat boxes on a hard, flat surface. With the spreader partially filled and set to the desired opening, make three passes over the boxes. Go the same direction each time.

Note: Twenty-four-can soda boxes are about the right size to use. Space the boxes uniformly across an area slightly wider than the spreader throws the product. Measure the distance between boxes, and make a note of it.

Pour the material caught in the boxes into separate small jars or cups. Line the containers up in order side by side to see the distribution pattern.

Note: In most cases, the containers in the middle will be fuller than those on the edges. Remember to sweep up and reuse the material not caught in the boxes.

Use the pattern to determine the approximate amount of overlap needed on each swath to get a uniform application rate. The smaller amounts collected on the edge of the pattern can be overlapped or combined to equal the amount applied in the middle of the pattern. Determine the effective swath width of the spreader. The total width of the granule distribution pattern minus the overlap needed on one side gives the effective swath width. Follow the calibration steps outlined above for drop spreaders. In marking out the 45 m2 or 90 m2 area for calibration, use a width equal to one or two times the effective swath width.

Granular calibration tips:

Drop spreaders are more precise. There is little chance of product application to non-target areas. However, small steering errors can easily lead to missed or double-covered strips. Also, drop spreaders may clog in wet grass. Rotary spreaders are faster than drop spreaders but are more difficult to calibrate. Product distribution is less uniform, and wind may blow the product off the intended area. The application rate for granular spreaders depends on the granule size, the spreader setting and the speed at which the operator walks. Spreader calibration must be done for each product and applicator that uses the spreader. Always sweep up and reuse the product used for calibration. Use a header strip in areas where the spreader must be turned around. A header strip is a swath of the spreader applied at right angles to the main direction of spreading. This allows the applicator to maintain constant speed up to the header strip. Shut the spreader off while turning around on the header strip. Wash the spreader out after each use. Allow drying before storing. Lubricate according to manufacturer's instructions.




Concept

(SO 1, AC 1 - 2) I understand this concept

Questions that I still would like to ask

How to apply appropriate nutrient substances to soils or crops.

Soil nutrients: • lime • liquid fertiliser • chemical fertilisers [single and mixtures]

• trace elements

Organic soil improvement methods and substances and techniques: • compost • organic teas • mulching

Methods and techniques of application of fertiliser: • manual • broadcast • liquid methods • leaf nutrition • slurry

How to measure correctly and why it is necessary to measure correctly

MMyy NNootteess …… . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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Please complete practical Activity 1.6 in your workbook

MMyy NNootteess …… . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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HHooww ttoo MMaakkee CCoommppoosstt aanndd WWhheenn ttoo UUssee iitt SSeessssiioonn 22

In this session we are going to learn how to make compost and when to use it by knowing:

How to make compost.

How to make a compost heap, mixing manure (or other nitrogen source) with organic matter, and adding appropriate amounts of water. The importance of Carbon-Nitrogen ratios in organic compost. The value of common local sources of organic waste. The importance of soil organic matter and its role in holding soil nutrients and water, and in combating soil acidity. How to store manure so that nutrients are not lost.

How to manage the composting process and recognised when compost is ready to use. The nutrient-loss dangers of leaving the heap too long.

22..11 HHooww ttoo MMaakkee CCoommppoosstt Compost is the end product of a complex feeding pattern involving hundreds of different organisms, including bacteria, fungi, worms, and insects. What remains after these organisms break down organic materials is the rich, earthy substance your produce will love.

Composting replicates nature's natural system of breaking down organic materials on the ground. In every forest, grassland, jungle, and garden, plants die, fall to the ground, and decay. They are slowly dismantled by the small organisms living in the soil. Eventually these plant parts disappear into the brown crumbly material. This humus keeps the soil light and fluffy.

Humus is our goal when we start composting. By providing the right environment for the organisms in the compost pile, it is possible to produce excellent compost. We usually want to organize and hasten Mother Nature's process. By knowing the optimum conditions of heat, moisture, air, and materials, we can speed up the composting process. Besides producing more good soil faster, making the compost faster creates heat that will destroy plant diseases and weed seeds in the pile.

After completing this session, you will be able to: SO 2: Understand how to make compost and when to use it.




Composting is a natural process, not an exact science. Therefore, a lot of flexibility exists in developing a composting system. Management of a composting operation may be directed toward one or more of the following objectives:

Minimizing time required for composting: If space is limited, an operator will want to maximize the processing rate or minimize the composting area required, but optimising the conditions. Generally, aerobic composting is much faster than anaerobic processes; therefore, more material can be processed on a given area in an aerobic composting system.

Maximizing destruction of pathogens and pests: High-temperature aerobic composting destroys weed seeds, insects, and pathogens; therefore, temperature may be a primary concern. Regular mixing of the material will facilitate aerobic conditions and ensure that all feedstock material is exposed to high temperatures.

Minimizing nuisance conditions: Aerobic composting is relatively odour free, compared to anaerobic processes. Even in aerobic systems, however, excessive nitrogen in the feedstock mixture can be volatilised, thereby generating odours.

Minimizing labour costs: Static piles (not turned after construction) and anaerobic systems require less handling than other systems. Various levels of automation can reduce labour requirements. Of course, automated systems may require high initial capital outlays for equipment and/or high-energy costs.

Optimising the final product quality and marketability: Managing nutrient mixtures and feedstocks can result in a compost product tailored for a specific market.

Generally, composting feedstocks are mixed mechanically with front-end loaders or windrow turners. The materials are placed into piles or windrows that should be sufficiently large to generate and store heat to promote high-temperature composting, but not so large that the materials become excessively compacted. Typical windrows range in size from 1.2 to 2.4 m tall and 3 to 6 m wide at the base. The dimensions should be no larger than available equipment can accommodate. Windrows may be aerated through passive aeration (natural convection) or forced aeration (by fans or compressed air). They may be static piles or turned regularly (every three days to two weeks). Management method depends upon characteristics of the waste, labour and equipment available, and operator preferences.

TThhee bbaassiicc iinnggrreeddiieennttss ooff aa ccoommppoosstt ppiillee Carbon (from organic matter like leaves) provides the food for micro-organisms.

Micro-organisms like specific bacteria and fungi

Nitrogen (the fertilizer) comes from grass clippings and dead green plants and provides the energy microorganisms need to break down the carbon.

Water and oxygen, which microorganisms need lots of to do their job.




CCoommppoosstt MMaatteerriiaallss

Almost any organic material is suitable for a compost pile:

The pile needs a proper ratio of carbon-rich materials, or "browns," and nitrogen-rich materials, or "greens." Among the brown materials are dried leaves, straw, and wood chips. Nitrogen materials are fresh or green, such as grass clippings and kitchen scraps.

Mixing certain types of materials or changing the proportions can make a difference in the rate of decomposition. Achieving the best mix is more an art gained through experience than an exact science. The ideal ratio approaches 25 parts browns to 1-part greens. Judge the amounts roughly equal by weight. Too much carbon will cause the pile to break down too slowly, while too much nitrogen can cause odour. The carbon provides energy for the microbes, and the nitrogen provides protein.

Leaves represent a large percentage of total yard waste. If you can grind them in a petrol or electric chipper shredder or mow over them, they will reduce in size making them easier to store until you can use them in the pile, and they will decompose faster - an issue with larger leaves. They are loaded with minerals brought up from the tree roots and are a natural source of carbon. A few leaf species such as live oak, magnolia, and holly trees are too tough and leathery for easy composting. Avoid all parts of the black walnut tree as they contain a plant poison that survives composting. Eucalyptus leaves can be toxic to other plants. And avoid using poison oak, poison ivy, and sumac.

Pine Needles need to be chopped or shredded, as they decompose slowly. They are covered with a thick, waxy coating. In very large quantities, they can acidify your compost, which would be a good thing if you have alkaline soils.

Grass Clippings break down quickly and contain as much nitrogen as manure. Since fresh grass clippings will clump together, become anaerobic, and start to smell, mix them with plenty of brown material. If you have a lot of grass clippings to compost, spread them on the driveway or other surface to bake in the sun for at least a day. Once it begins to turn pale or straw-like, it can be used without danger of souring. Avoid grass clippings that contain pesticide or herbicide residue, unless a steady rain has washed the residue from the grass blades.

Kitchen Refuse includes melon rinds, carrot peelings, tea bags, apple cores, banana peels - almost everything that cycles through your kitchen. The average household produces more than 200 pounds of kitchen waste every year. You can successfully compost all forms of kitchen waste. However, meat, meat products, dairy products, and high-fat foods like salad dressings and peanut butter, can present problems. Meat scraps and the rest will decompose eventually, but will smell bad and attract pests. Egg shells are a wonderful addition, but decompose slowly, so should be crushed. All additions to the compost pile will decompose more quickly if they are chopped up some before adding.




Wood Ashes from a wood burning stove or fireplace can be added to the compost pile. Ashes are alkaline, so add no more than one 5 liter-sized buckets-full to a pile with 1m x 1m x 1m dimensions. They are especially high in calcium and potassium. Don't use coal ashes, as they usually contain large amounts of sulphur and iron that can injure your plants. Used charcoal briquettes don't decay much at all, so it's best not to use them.

Garden Refuse should make the trip to the pile. All of the spent plants, thinned seedlings, and spent flowers can be included. Most weeds and weed seeds are killed when the pile reaches an internal temperature above 60ºC, but some may survive. To avoid problems don't compost weeds with persistent root systems, and weeds that are going to seed.

Spoiled Hay or Straw makes an excellent carbon base for a compost pile, especially in a place where few leaves are available. Hay contains more nitrogen than straw. They may contain weed seeds, so the pile must have a high interior temperature. The straw's little tubes will also keep the pile breathing.

Manure is one of the finest materials you can add to any compost pile. It contains large amounts of both nitrogen and beneficial microbes. Manure for composting can come from bats, sheep, ducks, pigs, goats, cows, pigeons, and any other vegetarian animal. As a rule of thumb, you should avoid manure from carnivores, as it can contain dangerous pathogens. Most manures are considered "hot" when fresh, meaning it is so rich in nutrients that it can burn the tender roots of young plants or overheat a compost pile, killing off earthworms and friendly bacteria. If left to age a little, however, these materials are fine to use. Manure is easier to transport and safer to use if it is, aged, or composted before it's used. Layer manure with carbon-rich brown materials such as straw or leaves to keep your pile in balance.

Seaweed is an excellent source of nutrient-rich composting material. Use the hose to wash off the salt before sending it to the compost pile.

The list of organic materials which can be added to the compost pile is long. There are industrial and commercial waste products you may have access to in abundance.

The following is a partial list: corn stalks cotton waste, restaurant or farmer's market scraps, shredded pruned shoots, sawdust, greensand, hair, hoof and horn meal, hops, peanut shells, paper and cardboard, rock dust, sawdust, feathers, cottonseed meal, blood meal, bone meal, fruit wastes, coffee, alfalfa, and ground seashells.

MMyy NNootteess …… . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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Following is a chart listing common composting materials:

Type of Material Use it? Carbon/ Nitrogen Detail

Algae, seaweed and lake moss Yes N Good nutrient source.

Ashes from coal or charcoal No n/a May contain materials bad for plants.

Ashes from untreated, unpainted wood Careful Neutral Fine amounts at most. Can make the pile too

alkaline and suppress composting.

Beverages, kitchen rinse water Yes Neutral Good to moisten the middle of the pile. Don't over-

moisten the pile.

Bird droppings Careful N May contain weed seeds or disease organisms.

Cardboard Yes C Shred into small pieces if you use it. Wetting it makes it easier to tear. If you have a lot, consider recycling instead.

Cat droppings or cat litter No n/a May contain disease organisms. Avoid.

Coffee ground and filters Yes N Worms love coffee grounds and coffee filters.

Compost activator Not required, but OK. Neutral You don't really need it, but it doesn't hurt.

Cornstalks, corn cobs Yes C Best if shredded and mixed well with nitrogen rich materials.

Diseased plants Careful N

If your pile doesn't get hot enough, it might not kill the organisms, so be careful. Let it cure several months, and don't use resulting compost near the type of plant that was diseased.

Dog droppings No n/a Avoid.

Dryer lint Yes C Compost away! Moistening helps.

Eggshells Yes C Break down slowly. Crushing shells helps.

Fish scraps No n/a Can attract rodents and cause a stinky pile.

Hair Yes N Scatter so it isn't in clumps.

Lime No n/a Can kill composting action. Avoid.

Manure (horse, cow, pig, sheep, goat, chicken, rabbit)

Yes N Great source of nitrogen. Mix with carbon rich materials so it breaks down better.

Meat, fat, grease, oils, bones No n/a Avoid.

Milk, cheese, yoghurt Careful Neutral Put it deep in the pile to avoid attracting animals.

Newspaper Yes C Shred it so it breaks down easier. It is easy to add too much newspaper, so recycle instead if you have a lot. Don't add slick coloured pages.

Oak leaves Yes C Shredding leaves helps them break down faster. They decompose slowly. Acidic.

Sawdust and wood shavings (untreated wood)

Yes C You'll need a lot of nitrogen materials to make up for the high carbon content. Don't use too much, and don't use treated woods.

Pine needles and cones Yes C Don't overload the pile. Also acidic and

decomposes slowly.

Weeds Careful N Careful

Sod Careful N Make sure the pile is hot enough, so grass doesn't continue growing and weed seeds are killed




Here is a handy Compost Trouble Shooting Guide to help you with your experiment:

COMPOST TROUBLESHOOTING GUIDE Problems, possible causes and solutions

Rotten Odour Reason excess moisture (anaerobic conditions)

Solution turn pile, or add dry, porous material, such as sawdust, wood chips, or straw

Reason compaction (anaerobic conditions)

Solution turn pile, or make pile smaller

Ammonia Odour Reason excess moisture

Solution turn pile

Reason too much nitrogen (lack of carbon)

Solution add high carbon material, such as sawdust, wood chips, or straw

Low Pile Temperature

Reason pile too small

Solution make pile bigger or insulate sides

Reason insufficient moisture

Solution add water while turning pile

Reason poor aeration

Solution turn pile

Reason lack of nitrogen

Solution mix in nitrogen sources such as grass clippings or manure

Reason cold weather

Solution increase pile size, or insulate pile with an extra layer of material such as straw

High Pile Temperature (greater than 140 degrees Fahrenheit)

Reason pile too large

Solution reduce pile size

Reason insufficient ventilation

Solution turn pile

Pests (rats, raccoons, insects)

Reason presence of meat scraps or fatty food waste

Solution remove meat and fatty foods from pile, or cover with a layer of soil or sawdust, or build an animal-proof compost bin, or turn the pile to increase temperature


MMyy NNootteess …… . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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22..22 MMaakkiinngg aa CCoommppoosstt HHeeaapp This is done by mixing manure (or other Nitrogen source) with organic matter, and adding appropriate amounts of water.

Compost can range from passive - allowing the materials to sit and rot on their own - to highly managed. Whenever you intervene in the process, you're managing the compost. How you compost is determined by your goal. If you're eager to produce as much compost as possible to use regularly, you may opt for a more hands-on method of composting. If your goal is to dispose of yard waste, a passive method is your answer.

PPaassssiivvee CCoommppoossttiinngg

This involves the least amount of time and energy on your part. This is done by collecting organic materials in a freestanding pile. It might take a long time (three to six months), but eventually organic materials in any type of a pile will break down into finished compost. More attractive than a big pile of materials sitting in your yard is a 3-sided enclosure made of fencing, wire, or concrete blocks, which keeps the pile neater and less unsightly. Add grass clippings, leaves, and kitchen scraps (always cover these with 10 cm of other material). The pile will shrink quickly as the materials compress and decompose. Wait a year or two before checking the bottom of the bin for finished compost. When it's ready, shovel the bottom section into a wheelbarrow and add it to your crop. Continue to add greens and browns to have a good supply of finished compost.

MMaannaaggeedd CCoommppoossttiinngg

This involves active participation, ranging from turning the pile occasionally to a major commitment of time and energy. If you use all the techniques of managing the pile, you can get finished compost in 3-4 weeks. Choose the techniques that reflect how much you want to intervene in the decomposition process and that will be a function of how fast you want to produce compost.

The speed with which you produce finished compost will be determined by how you collect materials, whether you chop them up, how you mix them together, and so on. Achieving a good balance of carbon and nitrogen is easier if you build the pile all at once. Layering is traditional, but mixing the materials works as well.

Shredded organic materials heat up rapidly, decompose quickly, and produce a uniform compost. The decomposition rate increases with the size of the composting materials. If you want the pile to decay faster, chop up large fibrous materials.

You can add new materials on an ongoing basis to an already established pile. Most single-bin gardeners build an initial pile and add more ingredients on top as they become available.




The temperature of the managed pile is important - it indicates the activity of the decomposition process. The easiest way to track the temperature inside the pile is by feeling it. If it is warm or hot, everything is fine. If it is the same temperature as the outside air, the microbial activity has slowed down and you need to add more nitrogen (green) materials such as grass clippings, kitchen waste, or manure.

Use a compost thermometer to easily see how well your compost is doing. They are inexpensive, and quite convenient to have. If the pile becomes too dry, the decay process will slow down. Organic waste needs water to decompose. The rule of thumb is to keep the pile as moist as a wrung-out sponge.

If you're building your pile with very wet materials, mix them with dry materials as you build. If all the material is very dry, soak it with a hose as you build. Whenever you turn the pile, check it for moisture and add water as necessary. Too much water is just as detrimental as the lack of water. In an overly wet pile, water replaces the air, creating an anaerobic environment, slowing decomposition.

Air circulation is an important element in a compost pile. Most of the organisms that decompose organic matter are aerobic - they need air to survive. There are several ways to keep your pile breathing. Try not to use materials that are easily compacted such as ashes or sawdust, without mixing them with a coarser material first. People who build large piles often add tree branches or even ventilation tubes vertically into different parts of the pile, to be shaken occasionally, to maximize air circulation.

A more labour-intensive way to re-oxygenate the pile is to turn the pile by hand, using a large garden fork. The simplest way is to move the material from the pile and restack it alongside. A multiple-bin system makes this efficient, in that you only handle the material once. Otherwise, you can put the material back into the same pile. The object is to end up with the material that was on the outside of the original pile, resting in the middle of the restacked pile. This procedure aerates the pile and will promote uniform decomposition.

22..33 TThhee IImmppoorrttaannccee ooff CCaarrbboonn--NNiittrrooggeenn RRaattiiooss iinn OOrrggaanniicc CCoommppoosstt

The microorganisms responsible for breaking down the organic matter need nitrogen for energy and therefore the balance between nitrogen and carbon is important. A carbon:nitrogen (C:N) ratio of between 20:1 and 30:1 is generally considered appropriate for agricultural wastes:

Higher C:N ratios slow material decomposition, because low nitrogen limits microbial activity.

Lower C:N ratios may contain excessive nitrogen that may be volatilised as ammonia, thereby producing odours and wasting nitrogen. If odours are a major concern, consider a feedstock mixture with a higher C:N ratio.




22..44 TThhee IImmppoorrttaannccee ooff SSooiill OOrrggaanniicc MMaatttteerr In this section we are going to explore the importance of soil organic matter and its role in holding soil nutrients and water, and in combating soil acidity:

Approximately 83 percent of Africa’s land (amounting to 700 million hectares) has serious soil fertility and other production constraints. Many of the soils in the sub-Saharan Africa area characterized by nitrogen (N) and phosphors deficiencies (P), lack of soil organic matter, low water holding capacity, high acidity and high rates of erosion.

Soil degradation and nutrient depletion results in considerable loss of agricultural potential and natural capital per year. The decline in soil and land productivity is widespread in many parts of Africa and is a combination of many factors, including over cultivation, overgrazing, deforestation, soil fertility decline, Stalinization, soil erosion, soil compaction, agrochemical pollution and inappropriate farming and land management practices and inequitable land tenure policies.

Without major investment in maintaining soil and land productivity, the majority of small-scale farmers who depend on the land would find it difficult to sustain production and would be increasingly vulnerable to chronic food shortage and recurrent famine and drought as witnessed in the past decades.

Desertification is also a major threat to many African countries. Climate variability (floods and droughts) and the demographic, economic (poverty), and social pressure fuel the degradation of grassland, woodlands, croplands and watering sources. Desertification is manifested in the physical loss of top soil, formation of gulleys, hardening of soils, absence of soil humus and nutrients, loss of biomass and vegetative cover, depletion of fuel wood supplies, shirking water bodies, lowering of ground water table, reduction of river flows and loss of genetic diversity. There are also cases where it has resulted in scarcity of land and conflict between farmers, livestock herders and pastoralists.

It is thus very, very important that we utilise organic matter, in the form of compost as much as possible in order to repair current damage.

The benefits of compost are numerous. According to Eliot Coleman, "compost is an inoculate of life in the soil. It adds and feeds micro organisms and makes the soil alive enough so that the natural fertilizers - the nutrients that are already there - can be used" (Smith, 1994). In addition, composting builds good soil structure. This helps the soil to better retain nutrients, water, and air. Compost helps heavier soils become more workable by opening up pore spaces. This allows water and air to better infiltrate the soil profile. Likewise, composting helps to bind sandy soils, increasing aggregation, and therefore improving water and nutrient retention.




22..55 HHooww ttoo MMaannaaggee tthhee CCoommppoossttiinngg PPrroocceessss In this section we are going to explore how to manage the composting process and recognised when compost is ready to use:

After the readily decomposable material is depleted, the compost pile will no longer heat upon remixing. The temperature will continue to drop to ambient. Only very slow decomposition will continue. The material should have a pleasant odour and a friable texture similar to a good potting soil. The material will likely feel moist and cool and have a dark brown colour. Several tests can be used to determine "doneness" of the compost, including incubation to test for generation of metabolism by-products and respirometer testing to measure oxygen use.

22..66 HHooww ttoo SSttoorree MMaannuurree ssoo tthhaatt NNuuttrriieennttss aarree nnoott LLoosstt

It is important to manage manure so that nutrients are not lost before they were cycled back to the soil. The seepage of liquid waste or urine, leaching of manure by rain and runoff water, and the "decay" of manure solids and the subsequent loss of nitrogen are all a result of poor handling techniques. It is recommend that the most practical method of manure handling would be to feed the stock on the cultivated fields so that the manure is scattered by the animals and the nutrients are retained by the soil. In any case, the manure should be returned to the soil as soon as possible and long term, open storage of six months or more should be avoided).

As a percentage of volume, the nutrients present in manure are small. "The figures for the fertilizing constituents are always low, but they are present in readily available form and the accompanying organic matter has itself a highly beneficial effect on the land. Even with these low percentages the total amount of plant food in the manure produced on a farm reaches very significant quantities"

Concept (SO 2, AC 1 - 3)

I understand this concept


How to make compost and when to use it.

Making a compost heap, mixing manure (or other nitrogen source) with organic matter, and adding appropriate amounts of water.

The importance of Carbon-Nitrogen ratios in organic compost

The value of common local sources of organic waste.







The importance of soil organic matter and its role in holding soil nutrients and water, and in combating soil acidity.

How to store manure so that nutrients are not lost.

How to manage the composting process and recognised when compost is ready to use.

The nutrient-loss dangers of leaving the heap too long.

MMyy NNootteess …… . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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BBaassiicc SSyymmppttoommss ooff NNuuttrriittiioonnaall DDeeffiicciieenncciieess iinn DDiiffffeerreenntt CCrrooppss SSeessssiioonn 33

In this session we are going to learn how to identify basic symptoms of nutritional deficiencies in different crops:

Symptoms of nutritional deficiencies

Characteristics of nutritional deficiencies (Nitrogen, Phosphorous and Magnesium deficiencies).

The colour change on plant leaves compared with healthy plants.

The importance of the position of the discoloured leaves.

Fruit / plant abnormalities due to nutritional deficiencies.

33..11 SSyymmppttoommss ooff NNuuttrriittiioonnaall DDeeffiicciieenncciieess Nutrient Symptoms Soil type Remedies

NITROGEN

Regulates vital chemical reactions, needed in stem and leaf growth and induces rapid green growth.

Plant turns pale green, then yellow. It begins at the tip of leaves at the bottom of plant especially older ones and works its way in the direction of the main stem. Yellowing gradually spreads up the plant to the top. Can be normal during fruiting.

Very sandy soils or low in organic material. Excessively wet or leached soil. High or low pH. Also likely in fast growing crops.

Alfalfa, blood, cottonseed, feather, fish, guano, seafood, urine. All manuresChemical fertilisers containing nitrogen

PHOSPHORUS

Root formation, flowering, fruiting and ripening.

Early in the deficiency, plants look almost too healthy. Growth is normal but undersized. Plants become dark green frequently changing to purple, especially the undersides of leaves. Sometimes stems also take on this colour. Leaves then yellow in the final stages. Poor flowering and fruiting.

Cold, wet or very acidic (below pH5). Soils in peat or sand; also very alkaline soils (above pH 7.3). Excess aluminium

Bone meal, bird manure, rock phosphate superphosphate

After completing this session, you will be able to: SO 3: Identify basic symptoms of nutritional deficiencies in different crops.




Nutrient Symptoms Soil type Remedies

POTASSIUM Important for the formation of flowers, fruit, leaves and growing tip. Helps photosynthesis at low light level and in internal water regulation. Improves flavour, fruit, vegetable and flower colour. Also linked to insect damage protection, disease and frost.

Older leaves become mottled or spotted, edges become dry and scorched. Dead spots begin to appear, stems are weak, root systems are poor, fruit ripens unevenly. Reduced disease resistance, poor storage qualities.

Sandy soils; acidic soil; soils high in peat. Excess calcium or magnesium.

Kelp, wood ash, seaweed. Chemical fertilisers containing potassium like potassium nitrate or potassium sulphate

MAGNESIUM

Vital for photosynthesis. Facilitates use of nitrogen, phosphorus and sulphur. It cleanses the plant of toxins that arise as a by-product of it's own metabolism. Needed in the formation of proteins.

Because it moves freely within the plant, deficiency first shows up in the lower leaves discolouring the veins. They first turn yellow, then orange and finally brown. Leaves feel thin, brittle and sometimes cup upward.

Wet, acid, high in peat or sand. Also soils given a high concentration of potash, fertilizers or calcium.

Magnesium sulphate

CALCIUM

Gives strength to the plant.

Since calcium doesn't move freely within the plant, the symptoms first appear in new growth. Chlorosis begins first at leaf edges then moves in. Terminal buds become distorted. Young leaves turn yellow, then brown. Tomatoes develop "blossom end rot", lettuce tip-burn.

Acid soils, sandy soils. Soils that contain an excess of magnesium or potassium. Temporary problems may be due to drought or excess moisture.

Eggshells, oyster shells Lime

SULPHUR

Together with nitrogen it makes protoplasm for plant cells.

Resembles to nitrogen deficiency. Plants turn pale green. Effects show up first in young growth. Leaves turn yellow but don't dry out. Stems are weak. Legumes are most affected.

Sandy or very wet soils, soils containing excessive amounts of nitrogen.

Chemical fertilisers containing sulphates

IRON

Plays a role in the formation of chlorophyll and oxidation

Chlorosis begins at the top of the plant and works its way down. Leaves turn yellow but retain green veins. Shoots may die back and fruit may be discoloured.

Alkaline soils. Excess phosphorus or aluminium.

Iron chelate




Nutrient Symptoms Soil type Remedies

MANGANESE

Catalyst in the process of plant nutrition and encourages the growth and maturation of plants.

Very difficult to diagnose since it resembles to iron deficiency. Chlorosis is most severe at the top of the plant. Yellowing of the leaves appears first near leaf margins and develops in a V-shaped pattern. Leaves then develop a tan or grey spots that can easily be mistaken for air pollution damage. These spots are the major difference between manganese and iron deficiency. Lesions develop on pea and bean seeds.

Alkaline soils high in humus or peaty soils with a pH of 6 or over.

Foliar application of manganese

BORON

Diverse use in plant functions including movement of sugar within the plant. Root, fruit and seed formation.

Corky spots develop on fruit. Rust-coloured cracks develop in stems and leafstalks, which later develop a corky edge. Leaves become thick, leathery, discoloured. Plants fail to bloom. Growing tips die.

Any soil, especially those high in calcium or potassium.

Soil and/or foliar application of Solubor or boric acid

MOLYBDENUM

Essential for symbiotic nitrogen fixation and protein synthesis.

Growing points die, leaves of young plants are chloritic, leaf margins yellow and curl. Older leaves become abnormally large, while young leaves remain very small. Brassicas are most affected.

Acidic soils (soils with a pH of 5.2 and below). Excess sulphur or copper.

Foliar application of molybdenum

COPPER

Important in photosynthesis. Catalyst in plant respiration and iron utilization.

Young leaves become chloritic in a very strange way. Leaf centres yellow while veins and leaf margins remain green for a while. Shoots tips die, terminal leaves brown, leaves may fail to develop.

Muck or peat soils; too much lime or phosphate applied. Excess phosphorus, zinc or nitrogen

Copper sulphate

ZINC

Formation of growth hormone; protein synthesis; seed and grain production and maturation.

Similar to nitrogen deficiency with rolled leaf margin. Chlorosis shows up first in young leaves, which are also reduced in size. Leaves are closely spaced, forming rosettes, and may be malformed. Poor nitrogen formation in legumes.

Soils that are sandy and acidic or alkaline and rich in humus. Soils excessively high in phosphates, nitrogen, calcium, or aluminium.

Zinc sulphate




33..22 CChhaarraacctteerriissttiiccss ooff NNuuttrriittiioonnaall DDeeffiicciieenncciieess Let’s look at pictures of what the leaves of plants look like with these deficiencies:

NNiittrrooggeenn DDeeffiicciieenncciieess

Nitrogen - N deficiency shows up as a yellowing (chlorosis) at the tips of lower leaves. It progresses down the leaf towards the stem along the midrib.

PPhhoosspphhoorroouuss DDeeffiicciieenncciieess

Phosphorus - P deficiency is characterized by a purpling of the leaf margin of lower leaves. Plants that are P deficient typically have a dark green colour because leaf expansion is retarded more than chlorophyll and chloroplast formation. Soil testing can reveal if P is deficient.

MMaaggnneessiiuumm DDeeffiicciieenncciieess

Magnesium - Mg deficient plants are characterized by an interveinal yellowing of lower leaves. Mg is mobile in the plant so older leaves are the first to show visual symptoms. Mg deficiency is not common, but acid, sandy soils of Ohio can be deficient

MMyy NNootteess …… . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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33..33 TThhee IImmppoorrttaannccee ooff tthhee PPoossiittiioonn ooff DDiissccoolloouurreedd LLeeaavveess

It is important to remember that in some crops, leaves naturally discolour due to growth renewal, or in the case of deciduous plants – complete leaf drop.

Sulphur is needed for protein synthesis and, e.g. FeS prosthetic groups in mitochondria and chloroplasts. It is much less mobile than nitrogen, so deficiency manifests as chlorosis of the upper leaves.

Nitrogen is needed for protein and nucleic acid synthesis. It is mobile in the plant (i.e. it can be recovered from proteins in senescent leaves and recycled to some extent into new proteins in young leaves). Consequently, deficiency strikes the older leaves first, and leads to stunting and chlorosis (yellowing) primarily of the lower leaves.

Magnesium is needed for chlorophyll synthesis. Like nitrogen, it can be scavenged from chlorophyll in senescent leaves, and is mobile in the plant (remember that the leaves of deciduous trees go yellow in autumn: this is partly due to the recovery of magnesium from their chlorophyll). Deficiency shows as interveinal chlorosis of the lower leaves.

Iron is also needed for chlorophyll synthesis, and is an integral part of many respiratory chain proteins. It is immobile in plant, so deficiency generally manifests as interveinal chlorosis of the upper leaves. Ericaceous (calcifuge) plants (those that live on acidic soil), often have the symptoms of iron deficiency if grown on alkaline soils (those rich in calcium salts, i.e. limestone. This is not because of an excess of calcium, but rather the reduced solubility of iron salts at high pH. Calcicole plants (those preferring alkaline soil), have a related problem when trying to grow on acid soil: the increased solubility of toxic aluminium salts at low pH.

Phosphorus is needed for nucleic acid synthesis, and the production of important cofactors such as ATP and NADH. Deficiency manifests as excessive greening or even purpling (anthocyanosis) of the leaves.

Calcium is needed for cell wall stiffening, and intracellular signalling via calmodulin. The edges of leaves with calcium deficiency wither and blacken.

Potassium is needed for electrolyte balance and the activation of many enzymes. A lack of potassium leads to generalised stunting and sterility without other obvious symptoms (deficiency of most of these macronutrients will cause some degree of stunting, but generally with the other symptoms noted above).




33..44 FFrruuiitt//PPllaanntt AAbbnnoorrmmaalliittiieess DDuuee ttoo NNuuttrriittiioonnaall DDeeffiicciieenncciieess

BBiitttteerr PPiitt

BP is a series of slightly sunken, purplish spots in the fruit. It is most common on Cortland, sometimes Delicious. Large fruit are more prone to this, especially in dry years. This is sign of a nutritional deficiency (calcium).

CCaallcciiuumm DDeeffiicciieennccyy

There are several calcium-related disorders of apple and pear. Those particular disorders that affect the fruit are cork spot, water core, bitter pit, Jonathan spot, deep cracking, and

raised lenticels. In pear, cork spot (bitter pit), black end and alfalfa greening are the result of calcium deficiency. Alfalfa

greening, also know as green stain, is confined to Anjou pears.

In other varieties, scattered purplish spots could be signs of calcium deficiency.




Let’s identify basic symptoms of nutritional deficiencies in different crops.

Nitrogen deficiencies.

Phosphorous deficiencies

Magnesium deficiencies.

The colour change on plant leaves compared with healthy plants

The importance of the position of the discoloured leaves

Fruit/ plant abnormalities due to nutritional deficiencies




SSeessssiioonn 44

In this session we are going to gain a basic understanding of soil properties:

Soil texture and structure Soil structure and texture are identified using simple tests/observations. Water holding and drainage capacity of different soil types

Soil composition in terms of silt/clay/gravel ratios. Simple tests and observations we can use to help us determine soil composition The advantages and disadvantages of different soil types.

44..11 BBaassiiccss ooff SSooiill PPrrooppeerrttiieess Soil is the thin layer of eroded mineral material, broken down organic matter and community of animals, plant roots and microorganisms that cover the terrestrial surface of the earth. Although we rarely notice the soils around us, we rely on soil to produce our food, to clean our water, to play on and in (and with!) and as a solid base for our buildings.

Soil is our greatest resource, yet every year, soil that could be growing crops or pastures is lost, through erosion, acidity, salinity, pollution and housing estates. We are going to look at what soil is, how it works, what we do with it, how we damage it and how we can restore it.

SSooiill hhaass ssoommee bbaassiicc pprrooppeerrttiieess:: It has texture and structure It has organic context

It contains solutions of salts (minerals) that facilitate electrical conductivity It has a water holding capacity It can be Acidic (low pH) or Alkaline (high pH)

We are going to examine some of these properties in detail.

AA BBaassiicc UUnnddeerrssttaannddiinngg ooff SSooiill PPrrooppeerrttiieess

After completing this session, you will be able to: SO 4: Demonstrate a basic understanding of soil properties.

Erode...To break down into smaller pieces Organic...Derived from living organisms such as plants, animals, fungi or bacteria. Micro-organism...An organism so small, that it can only be seen under a microscope. Terrestrial...Of the land (opposite to aquatic, aerial); Living on the ground




44..22 SSooiill TTeexxttuurree aanndd SSttrruuccttuurree

Texture The coarseness or fineness of the soil.

Sand The largest of the soil particles. It is huge when it is compared to clay.

Silt This is the medium-sized soil particle. It is between sand and clay in size.

Clay Very fine soil particles.

SSooiill TTeexxttuurree

The way a soil "feels" is called the soil texture. Soil texture depends on the amount of each size of particle in the soil. Sand, silt, and clay are names that describe the size of individual particles in the soil:

Sand (excluding gravel) is the largest of the soil particles and it feels "gritty."

When you rub it, it feels rough. This is because it has sharp edges. Sand doesn't hold many nutrients or a lot of water

Silt is a soil particle whose size is between sand and clay (medium sized) and it feels soft, silky or "floury."

Silt feels smooth and powdery. When wet it feels smooth but not sticky.

Clay is the smallest of the soil particles and it feels "sticky" and it is hard to squeeze when the soil is dry and easy to squeeze when the soil is wet.

Clay is smooth when dry and sticky when wet. Soils high in clay content are called heavy soils. Clay also can hold a lot of water and nutrients, but too much

water can replace the air

Particle size has a lot to do with a soil's drainage and nutrient holding capacity.

To better understand how big these three soil particles are, think of them like this.

If a particle of sand were the size of a soccer ball, then silt would be the size of a table tennis ball, and clay would be the size of a marble.

Line them all up, and you can see how these particles compare in size ratio.

TThhee IImmppoorrttaannccee ooff SSooiill TTeexxttuurree The texture of a soil influences how the soil responds to different stresses.

Sandy soils are much better drained than clay soils but do not retain much water and therefore dries out quicker.

In a heavy rain, sandy soils allow the water to freely enter and wash through.

Clay soils can be poorly drained and water might start accumulating on the surface but they retain a lot of water and therefore stay whet longer.




For most agricultural plants, loamy soils that are mixtures of sand, silt and clay are generally the best because they are well drained, but still retain water longer than sandy soils. In general, the finer the texture: the more difficult a soil is to work or till, the greater the water holding capacity, the slower water will enter and move through the soil profile, the more difficult plant root penetration, the more readily surface soil will crust, and the more nutrient rich the soil.

Regardless of textural class, all soils in South Africa contain sand, silt, and clay, although the amount of a particular particle class may be small

SSooiill SSttrruuccttuurree

Soil structure is the shape in which the soil particles stick together, based on its physical and chemical properties. Each individual unit of soil structure is called a ped. Take a sample of undisturbed soil in your hand (either from the pit or from the shovel or auger). Look closely at the soil in your hand and examine its structure. Possible choices of soil structure are:

Granular: Resembles cookie crumbs and is usually less than 0.5 cm in diameter. Commonly found in surface horizons where roots have been growing.

Columnar: Vertical columns of soil that have a salt "cap" at the top. Found in soils of arid climates.

Blocky: Irregular blocks that are usually 1.5 - 5.0 cm in diameter.

Prismatic: Vertical columns of soil that might be a number of cm long. Usually found in lower horizons.

Single Grained: Soil is broken into individual particles that do not stick together. Always accompanies a loose consistence. Commonly found in sandy soils.

Platy: Thin, flat plates of soil that lie horizontally. Usually found in compacted soil.

Massive: Soil has no visible structure, is hard to break apart and appears in very large clods.




SSooiill TTyyppeess

Textural Class Shape of Sausage Clay

Content Illustration

Sand

It is not possible to roll a sausage in the palm. The soil does not stick together.

Less than 10%

Loamy Sand (LoSa)

It is possible to roll a sausage, but the sausage cannot be bent at all without cracking or breaking.

10 to 15%

Sandy Loam (SaLo)

The sausage can be bent slightly, with the tips bent downwards for about 10mm without the sausage cracking in the middle.

15 to 25%

Sandy Clay Loam

(SaClLo)

The sausage can be bent down at the tips to about 20mm without cracking in the middle.

25 to 35%

Sandy Clay

The sausage can be bent to form a semi-circle without cracking in the middle.

35 to 50%

Clay

The sausage can be bend to form a complete circle without cracking in the middle

>50%

Any soil can be placed within the Soil Textural Triangle, once the relative proportions of clay, silt and sand are known. The texture of a soil influences how the soil responds to different stresses.

SSooiill CCoonnssiisstteennccyy

Soil Consistency the feel of the soil, reflecting relative resistance to pressure: e.g. friable, firm, hard, loose, plastic. The term soil consistency is used to describe the resistance of a soil at various moisture contents to mechanical stresses or manipulations. It is commonly measured by feeling and manipulating the soil by hand or by pulling a tillage instrument through it. The




consistency of soils is generally described at three soil moisture levels: wet, moist and dry. Terms used to describe soil consistency at these three moisture levels are shown in the following table:

Wet soils Stickiness Plasticity

Moist soils Dry soils

Non-sticky No plastic Loose Loose

Slightly sticky Slightly plastic Very friable Soft

Sticky Plastic Friable Slightly hard

Firm Hard

Very firm Very hard Very sticky Very plastic

Extremely firm Extremely hard

Terms such as weakly cemented, strongly cemented, and indurate are used to define categories of cementation. Consistency has importance for the practical use of soils such as soil tillage and compaction by farm machinery.

TThhee OOrrggaanniicc CCoonntteenntt ooff SSooiill

Soils also contain an incredible number of organisms. The range of different species of animals and microorganisms in soils is similar to the biodiversity found in rainforests and tropical reefs. These soil organisms range in size from tiny viruses and bacteria up to earthworms as large as 2m in length.

Current estimates of the number of species of some groups include;

bacteria (30,000) fungi (1,500,000) algae (60,000)

protozoa (100,000) nematodes (500,000) earthworms (3,000)

These soil organisms are responsible for decomposing all the organic matter which enters the soil (i.e. leaves falling on the surface, roots dying underneath the surface) and recycling the nutrients contained in it for further plant production. Larger soil animals chew the organic material into smaller pieces and make burrows, which aerates the soil and provides channels for water movement.

Tiny microorganisms are responsible for most of the decomposition of organic materials and also produce special glues which stick soil particles together, making the soil less prone to wind erosion.

Some microorganisms can even produce plant growth hormones which speed up the growth of plants. Without these millions of creatures, the soil is dead and produces nothing.




Soil structure and texture are identified using simple tests/observations (par. 4.3).

SSooiill HHoorriizzoonnss

OO11 Undecomposed

litter OO Horizon - Organic plant

residues OO22 Partly

decomposed debris

AA11 Zone of humus accumulation

AA22 Zone of strongest

leaching

AA Horizon – Zone of

eluviation (leaching)

AA33 Transition to

B horizon

BB11 Transition to

A horizon

BB22 Zone of strongest

deposition

Solu

m, T

rue

Soil

BB Horizon – Zone of

eluviation (deposition)

BB33 Transition to

C horizon

Reg

olit

h, W

eath

ered

Mat

eria

l

CC Horizon – Parent material CC

Unconsolidated rock

RR Layer – Bedrock RR Consolidated

rock

Biodiversity...A measure of the number of different types of species. An area with a high biodiversity (such as a rainforest or a tropical reef) has many different kinds of organisms present. Virus...A tiny, simple microorganism that replicates itself by invading the cells of other organisms and changing the function of the cells so that they start producing viruses. Bacteria...a wide range of simple, single-celled microorganisms. Decompose...The process whereby soil microbes and animals eat organic material, breaking it down into smaller and smaller pieces. This process recycles the nutrients found in the organic material, making the nutrients available for further plant growth. Aerate...expose to air, usually by mixing material with air, or creating spaces for air to move into.

MMyy NNootteess …… . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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Vegetation

“A” Horizon (topsoil)

“B” Horizon (subsoil)

“C” Horizon (weathered parent rock)

Bedrock




44..33 TTeessttss && OObbsseerrvvaattiioonnss ttoo DDeetteerrmmiinnee SSooiill CCoommppoossiittiioonn aanndd TTeexxttuurree

Let’s explore some simple tests and observations we can use to help us determine soil composition and texture:

Soil Consistency: Take a ped from the topsoil horizon. If the soil is very dry, moisten the face of the profile using a water bottle with a squirt top and then remove a ped to determine consistence. (Repeat this procedure for each horizon in your profile.) Holding it between your thumb and forefinger, gently squeeze the ped until it pops or falls apart. Record one of the following categories of soil consistence on the data sheet.

Loose: You have trouble picking out a single ped and the structure falls apart before you handle it.*

* Soils with "single grained" structure always have loose consistency.

Friable: The ped breaks with a small amount of pressure.

Firm: The ped breaks when you apply a good amount of pressure and dents your fingers before it breaks.

Extremely Firm: The ped can't be crushed with your fingers (you need a hammer!).




TToo DDeetteerrmmiinnee SSooiill TTeexxttuurree

Step 1 Collect a sample of soil from your farm. Use the triangle to determine the soil texture of your horizon.

Place some soil from a horizon (about the size of a small egg) in your hand, and, using the spray mist bottle, moisten the soil. Let the water soak in and then work the soil between your fingers until it is the same moisture throughout. Once the soil is moist, try to form a ball. If the soil forms a ball, go on to Step 2. If the soil does not form a ball, go to Step 5.

Step 2 (Test for Clay)

A. If the soil:

Is really sticky

Hard to squeeze

Stains your hands

Has a shine when rubbed

Forms a long ribbon (5+ cm) without breaking,

Call it a clay and go to Step 3.

Otherwise, go to B.

B. If the soil:

Is somewhat sticky

Is somewhat hard to squeeze

Forms a medium ribbon (between 2-5 cm)

Call it a clay loam and go to Step 3.

Otherwise, go to C.

C. If the soil is:

Soft

Smooth

Easy to squeeze,

At most slightly sticky,

Forms a short ribbon (less than 2 cm)

Call it a loam and go to Step 3.

Otherwise, go to D.

D. If the soil forms a ball but no ribbon, go to Step 4.




Step 3 (Refine initial soil texture classification from Step 2 for relative amounts of sand and silt) Wet a small pinch of the soil in your palm and rub it with a forefinger.

If the soil:

Feels very gritty, go to E

Feels very smooth, with no gritty feeling, go to F

Feels only a little gritty, go to G

E. Add the word sandy to the initial classification.

Soil texture is (check one):

sandy clay,

sandy clay loam,

sandy loam

Soil Texture is complete

F. Add the word silt or silty to the initial classification.

Soil texture is (check one):

silty clay,

silty clay loam,

silt loam


G. Leave the original classification of (check one):

clay,

clay loam,

loam

Step 4 (Test for loamy sand or silt) If the soil:

Forms a ball

Forms no ribbon

And is

H. Very gritty

Soil texture is:

loamy sand

Soil Texture is complete.

Or




I. Very soft and smooth with no gritty feeling,

Soil texture is:

silt


Step 5 (Test for sand) If the soil:

Forms no ball and falls apart in your hand,

Soil texture is:

sand

Soil Texture is complete.

PPrreesseennccee ooff RRoooottss aanndd RRoocckkss iinn yyoouurr SSooiill

44..44 WWaatteerr HHoollddiinngg aanndd DDrraaiinnaaggee CCaappaacciittyy ooff DDiiffffeerreenntt SSooiill TTyyppeess

Soil drainage is defined as the rate and extent of water movement in the soil, including movement across the surface as well as downward through the soil.

Slope is a very important factor in soil drainage.

Other factors include texture, structure, and physical condition of surface and subsoil layers.

Soil drainage is indicated by soil colour. Clear, bright colours indicate well-drained soils.

Mixed, drab, and dominantly grey colours indicate poor drainage.

Please complete practical activity 4.1 & 4.2 in your workbook

MMyy NNootteess …… . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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Presence of Roots: Observe and record if there are none, few, or many roots in the horizon.

Presence of Rocks: Observe and record if there are none, few, or many rocks* in the horizon. * A rock is defined as being larger than 2 mm in size.




Low-lying areas within the landscape receive run-off water.

Frequently, the water from these areas must escape by lateral movement through the soil or by evaporation from the surface, as poor structure and other physical influences do not allow drainage through the soil.

Continuous, cemented hardpan layers such as caliche also greatly reduce the internal drainage through a soil profile.

Sandy soils are much better drained than clay soils. In a heavy rain, sandy soils allow the water to freely enter and wash through. But clay soils can be poorly drained and water might start accumulating on the surface. However, sandy soils dry out much quicker than clay soils. For most agricultural plants, loamy soils are generally the best because they are well drained, but still retain water longer than sandy soils.

AAiirr aanndd wwaatteerr mmoovveemmeenntt iinn SSooiill Air and water movement within the soil is closely related to soil structure.

Good soil structure allows rapid movement of air and water, while poor soil structure slows down this movement.

Other things being equal, water can enter a surface soil that has granular structure more rapidly than one that has little structure.

Soil compaction due to excessive vehicle or foot traffic or excessive tillage can greatly reduce soil aggregation and water infiltration.

Since plant roots move through the same channels in the soil as air and water, good structure allows extensive root development whereas poor structure discourages it.

Water, air, and plant roots move more freely through sub soils that have blocky structure than those with a flaky horizontal structure.

Good structure of the surface soil is promoted by an adequate supply of organic matter.

Soil structure can be protected, by working the soil only when moisture conditions are correct.

ppHH ooff ssooiill

pH is a measure of how acidic or basic things are and is measured using a pH scale between 0 to 14, with acidic things having a pH between 0-7 and basic things having a pH from 7 to 14. For instance, lemon juice and battery acid are acidic and fall in the 0-7 range, whereas seawater and bleach are basic (also called "alkaline") and fall in the 7-14 pH range. Pure water is neutral, or 7 on the pH scale.

TThhee iimmppoorrttaannccee ooff ssooiill ppHH

The pH of soil or more precisely the pH of the soil solution is very important because soil solution carries in it nutrients such as Nitrogen (N), Potassium (K), and Phosphorus (P) that plants need in specific amounts to grow, thrive, and fight off diseases. If the pH of the soil solution is increased above 5.5, Nitrogen (in the form




of nitrate) is made available to plants. Phosphorus, on the other hand, is available to plants when soil pH is between 6.0 and 7.0.

Certain bacteria help plants obtain N by converting atmospheric Nitrogen into a form of N that plants can use. These bacteria live in root nodules of legumes (like alfalfa and soybeans) and function best when the pH of the plant they live in is growing in soil within an acceptable pH range.

For instance, alfalfa grows best in soils having a pH of 6.2 - 7.8, while soybean grows best in soils with a pH between 6.0 and 7.0. Peanuts grow best in soils that have a pH of 5.3 to 6.6. Many other crops, vegetables, flowers and shrubs, trees, weeds and fruit are pH dependent and rely on the soil solution to obtain nutrients. If the soil solution is too acidic plants cannot utilize N, P, K and other nutrients they need. In acidic soils, plants are more likely to take up toxic metals and some plants eventually die of toxicity (poisoning).

Herbicides, pesticides, fungicides and other chemicals are used on and around plants to fight off plant diseases and get rid of bugs that feed on plants and kill plants. Knowing whether the soil pH is acidic or basic is important because if the soil is too acidic the applied pesticides, herbicides, and fungicides will not be absorbed (held in the soil) and they will end up in garden water and rain water runoff, where they eventually become pollutants in our streams, rivers, lakes, and ground water.

DDeeeepp vvss.. sshhaallllooww ssooiillss Very Shallow — surface is less than 20cm from a layer that retards root development.

Shallow — Soil surface is 20-40 cm from a layer that retards root development.

Moderately deep — Soil surface is 40-60 cm from a layer that retards root development.

Deep — Soil surface is 70-120cm from a layer that retards root development.

Very deep — Soil surface is 120cm or more from a layer that retards root development.

TThhee aaddvvaannttaaggeess aanndd ddiissaaddvvaannttaaggeess ooff ddiiffffeerreenntt ssooiill ttyyppeess Growing plants also change the soil structure as they send their roots into the soil for mechanical support and to gather water and nutrients.

The roots of plants, as they grow, tend to enlarge the openings in the soil.

When they die and decay, they leave channels for movement of air and water.

In addition to the plants that we see, there are bacteria, fungi, nematodes, and other very small organisms growing in the soil which can be seen only with the aid of a microscope.

Even these organisms enrich the soil as they die.




44..55 PPuuttttiinngg tthhee PPiieecceess TTooggeetthheerr The arrangement of the particles and spaces between the particles (pores) is called the structure of a soil. What makes a good structure is dependent on what you want to use the soil for. A good structure for growing tomatoes is like a sponge, with large soil particles and large air spaces for the free movement of water and air.

Rice on the other hand needs a soil structure with few air spaces between the particles. Buildings require very compact soils which do not crack or swell.

A soil aggregate, made up of many smaller parts.

Small particles of soil can stick together to form bigger particles. Soil particles are stuck together by chemical forces between clays and by glues made by soil microorganisms.

The strength of the bonding between soil particles is called the soil stability. Stable soils have strong bonds and maintain their structure during wetting/drying cycles. Unstable soils lose their structure during wetting cycles or wind storms and are subject to high rates of erosion

Some soils are naturally more stable than others because of their chemical properties.

Leaving soils bare leaves them prone to rainfall impact, which smashes up the soil particles on the surface. Constant ploughing also breaks up the soil surface.

Organic matter can help bind soil particles together and not returning organic material to the soil every year will result in a reduction in organic bonding between soil particles and a less stable soil.

TThhee BBaassiicc TTyyppeess aarree EExxppllaaiinneedd bbeellooww:: Clay may be likened in some ways to putty. It is very fine-grained, and smooth and silky to the touch. Even when it is well drained, it is wet, and so is difficult to cultivate during rainy periods and in the winter months. In fact, if it is dug or forked when wet, it has the nasty habit of settling down -




or " panning," as it is called - like cement, and then it is very difficult to work afterwards.

It is most important to see that clay soils are drained, and this is one of the best ways of improving them. Lime should be applied to clay soils regularly, as it prevents them from becoming so " sticky," and "opens" them up. During periods of draught, clay can become 'rock hard' and crack, it's not uncommon to see cracks 15 cm wide and 1.5m deep plants laid on clay.

Sandy soils contain less than 10 per cent of clay, and consist of very small particles of silica and quartz. The amount of humus present will alter the colour and the texture.

Sand is a light and dry soil. It is one of the warmest soils as it warms up much more quickly in the spring due to its dryness. For this reason it is useful in producing early crops.

One of the advantages of a sandy soil is that it can be worked at any time of the year and it is comparatively easy to cultivate. On the other hand it is poor in plant foods, coarse-grained, and does not retain moisture.

Loam. The best way of describing loam is to say that it is an ideal blend of sand and clay. The sand being present to keep the soil open, and the clay, in its turn, ensuring that sufficient moisture-retention properties are there.

Obviously there are various types of loams, depending on the proportion of clay or sand present. Loam is generally considered the best soil for large numbers of plants. The ideal loam has all the advantages of sandy and clay soils, and none of their disadvantages. The sand present allows the plant roots to work easily throughout it; the clay present helps to look after the plant food side, and prevents rapid drying out. In wet weather the water can percolate through quite quickly, and so the soil does not become waterlogged, and in dry weather it does not become too hard for the roots to work through.

Calcareous or chalky soils, more often than not, are very deficient in plant food and rather shallow. They are often very lacking in humus, and as much organic matter as possible should be added every year. They are more often calcareous by reason of the fact that they overlie chalk or limestone, and the fine particles of these substances may be found every time the land is cultivated. When wet, they are often very sticky and unpleasant, and so are difficult to work during rainy periods. In dry seasons they are disappointing, as they soon suffer from lack of water.

Because of the chalk present, the leaves of plants often become bright yellow in colour, owing to what is known as chlorosis. This yellowing may not affect the plants in any other way, but it usually means stunted growth. Chalky soils have the advantage that it is seldom necessary to lime them, and in them the clubfoot disease of cabbages, etc., does not flourish.

Peat soil has usually been derived from marshland where there has been continuous growth and decay over thousands of years. The most outstanding feature of them is that they are usually absolutely free of lime and so are very "sour”. This sourness is produced by the decaying of the vegetable matter present, as peat soils contain more than 20 per cent of humus.




Peat is usually found in low-lying areas, and so may be waterlogged and may need pipe draining. Certain crops, like celery, for instance, do very well on peat soils. Brown peat is easier to work than the black, heavy bog-like peat. Once peat soils are well worked and limed, they can prove very valuable - in fact some plants (acid lovers), like rhododendrons and azaleas, prefer these soils to any other.

Subsoil - Most soils are about 30cm in depth, though many of them are no deeper than 20 – 25 cm. Below this is what gardeners call the subsoil, which may be similar in character to the material above, and yet which may not contain available plant foods. It is important to try and get the soil to as great a depth as possible.

Of course there are places where the layer of soil may be only a few centimetres over hard rock, and, in others the soil type may go down as far as you can dig. Subsoil affects the farmer, chiefly because it either allows or impedes drainage of the topsoil. For instance, if you have a light loam over gravel or sand, you can be assured that all excessive moisture will be quickly carried away. It is unfortunate to have an easily workable loam over clay, as then the movement of water is stopped and the surface can become waterlogged.

Therefore you must take notice of both the soil and the subsoil, as the one is the complement of the other.

Concept (SO 4, AC 1 - 3) I understand this concept


Let’s gain a basic understanding of soil properties.

Soil texture and structure

Soil structure and texture are identified using simple tests/ observations.

Water holding and drainage capacity of different soil types

Soil composition in terms of silt/clay/gravel ratios.

Simple tests and observations we can use to help us determine soil composition

The advantages and disadvantages of different soil types.

Now complete activity 4.1 in your workbook

MMyy NNootteess …… . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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PPeerrffoorrmm tthhee MMoosstt BBaassiicc MMeetthhooddss ooff SSooiill PPrreeppaarraattiioonn SSeessssiioonn 55

In this session we are going to learn about the most basic methods of soil preparation - that require hand-held tools and low-technology ploughing implements:

The function and correct use of simple ploughing tools Low-technology plough implements

The use of hand-held tools such as picks, shovels, forks Animal drawn tools for soil preparation. How to prepare a piece of ground to achieve the appropriate tilth, texture and friability. The advantages and disadvantages of effective and ineffective soil preparation, and the effects thereof on plant roots.

55..11 BBaassiicc MMeetthhooddss ooff SSooiill PPrreeppaarraattiioonn TToo PPrreeppaarree tthhee SSooiill mmeeaannss::

To find the right type of topography & soil type for your specific crop. To test the soil. To treat the soil to compensate for nutrient deficiencies. To treat the soil against pests & diseases.

To manually “loosen” the soil to the right depth for your plant’s roots to grow effectively. To till the soil with implements such as Shovels, Pick-Axes, Gardening Forks, Ploughs and Tillers. To break-up any physical soil barriers such as hard rock layers.

SSooiill PPrreeppaarraattiioonn

Be practical… you have looked at a site and you have got some soil and you have decided you are determined to plant vegetable crops or an orchard! So what kinds of actions will you have to take to prepare this soil before you can actually start planting?

After completing this session, you will be able to: SO 5: Apply soil preparation tasks that require hand-held tools and low-technology ploughing implements.




SStteepp 11 –– MMaakkiinngg ssuurree yyoouu aarree ppllaannttiinngg iinn tthhee rriigghhtt ssppoott!! Dig “profile holes” of 1x1x3m (deep) in various parts of the area where you want to plant Look at the soil depth. Check for rock layers.

Look at the visible differences in the layers. Take representative soil samples Have the soil samples analysed professionally so that you know how fertile it is & what type of soil it is, as well as what challenges you might be up against. Look at what types of weeds or other plants are growing on the specific area where you want to plant – before you clear. Look at what types of pests or insects might be hanging around the area before you clear.

SStteepp 22 -- CClleeaarriinngg tthhee FFiieelldd!! Remove all the current shrubs, trees, rocks etc. from the sight manually. Remember that you can’t just chop trees & shrubs off; you have to dig them out! (Make sure that no roots are left behind!)

“Rip” the soil. This means that you have to loosen all the soil in the area up to a depth of about 60 cm . This is mostly done mechanically with big machines like these:

Soil should be damp but not too wet (you don’t want the machines to get stuck in the mud!)

A Few notes before “Ripping”:

Soil should not be too dry either (you cannot dig in hard dry soil & neither can a machine!)

If there are rock layers they should be dealt with at this stage.

If there are poor / inferior or infertile sub-layers of soil you must be careful not to bring them to the surface.

The aim of “Ripping” is to aerate & loosen the soil in order to make it easy for the plant’s roots to grow & for water & fertilisers etc. to penetrate the soil.

Be careful not to let the heavy machinery drives over the soil too many times because then all it achieves is compacting the soil (packing it closely together) – which defeats the object of “ripping”.




SStteepp 33 –– TTiillll && TTrreeaatt!! Till the topsoil i.e. ensure that the soil is fine & even & there are no big lumps in between.

This can be done manually with a pitchfork or mechanically with a plough.

Then treat the soil against weed & nematodes.

SStteepp 44 –– AAddjjuusstt ffoorr ooppttiimmuumm eeffffeeccttiivveellyy

If the soil has been analysed the expert Soil Scientists will also draw-up a list of things that you can do to improve the soil fertility. Ad fertilizers as suggested by soil scientist

HHeerree aarree aa ffeeww eexxaammpplleess:: If the soil is too acidic (has a low pH) – add lime

If the soil is too alkaline (has a high pH) – add gypsum

If the soil lacks phosphate – add phosphate (moves slowly in the soil)

Even trace elements can be corrected for optimum plant growth!

55..22 TThhee FFuunnccttiioonn aanndd CCoorrrreecctt UUssee ooff SSiimmppllee PPlloouugghhiinngg TToooollss

Tillage has been an important aspect of technological development in the evolution of agriculture, in particular in food production. The objectives of tilling the soil include seedbed preparation, water and soil conservation and weed control. Tillage has various physical, chemical and biological effects on the soil both beneficial and degrading, depending on the appropriateness or otherwise of the methods used. The physical effects such as aggregate-stability, infiltration rate, soil and water conservation, in particular, have direct influence on soil productivity and sustainability.

LLooww--tteecchhnnoollooggyy PPlloouugghh IImmpplleemmeennttss

The plough is a tool used in farming for initial cultivation of soil in preparation for sowing seed or planting. The plough can be regarded as a development of the pick, or of the spade. Ploughs were initially pulled by humans, later by oxen, and later still in some countries, by horses. Modern ploughs are, in industrialized countries, powered by tractors.

Ploughing has several beneficial effects. The major reason for ploughing is to turn over the upper layer of the soil. This may also incorporate the residue from the previous crop into the soil. Ploughing reduces the prevalence of weeds in the fields, and makes the soil more porous, easing later planting.




TThhee MMooddeerrnn PPlloouugghh

Traditional ploughs can only turn the soil over in one direction, as dictated by the shape of the mouldboard. The resulting method of traversing an entire field leads to the ridge and furrow effect seen in some ancient fields.

Modern ploughs are reversible, having 2 sets of mouldboards: while one is working the land, the other is carried upside-down in the air. During the cultivation process, hydraulics is used to turn over the entire implement at each end of the field so that the second set of mouldboards can be used. The field can then be traversed in such a way as to keep the land level, avoiding ridges and furrows.

The modern reversible plough is mounted on a tractor via a three-point hitch. These commonly have sets of 2 up to 5 mouldboards, but semi-mounted ploughs, the lifting of which are supplemented by a wheel about half-way along its length, can have as many as 18.

The hydraulic system of the tractor is used to lift and reverse the implement, as well as adjust furrow width and depth. The ploughman still has to set the draughting linkage from the tractor so that the plough is carried at the proper angle in the soil. This angle and depth can be controlled automatically by modern tractors.

PPlloouugghh PPaarrttss Frame

Frog

Share

Mouldboard

Runner

Landside

Shin

Trash board

Handles

Hitch

Knife or coulter

On modern ploughs and some older ploughs, the mouldboard is separate from the share and runner, allowing these parts to be replaced without replacing the mouldboard. Abrasion eventually destroys all parts of a plough that contact the soil.




55..33 TThhee UUssee ooff HHaanndd--HHeelldd TToooollss SSuucchh aass PPiicckkss,, SShhoovveellss aanndd FFoorrkkss

PPiicckkss

A pick is a tool used for manual labour which consists of a hard spike attached perpendicular to a handle.

The spike, commonly made of metal, may curve slightly, and often has a counter-weight to improve ease of use. The stronger the spike, the more effectively the tool can function.

A pick is often used to break up hard or rocky surfaces. The momentum given by swinging the pick, combined with the very small area of impact, magnifies the labourer's ability to pierce the surface. Rocking the embedded spike about and removing it can then break up the surface.

Originally used as agricultural tools as far back as prehistoric cultures, picks have also served for tasks ranging from mining to warfare. The design has also evolved into other tools such as the plough and the mattock.

SSppaaddee

In small scale farming, a spade is a hand tool used to dig or loosen ground, or to break up clumps in the soil. Together with the fork it forms one of the chief implements wielded by the hand in agriculture and horticulture. It is sometimes considered a type of shovel. Its typical shape is a broad flat blade with a sharp lower edge, straight or curved. The upper edge on either side of the handle affords space for the use’s foot, which drives

it into the ground. The wooden handle ends in a crosspiece, sometimes T-shaped and sometimes forming a kind of loop for the hand. Smaller spades are normally used for clay soils, whilst the larger spades are used for sandy or loamy soils.

SShhoovveell

A shovel is a tool for lifting and moving loose material such as gravel, dirt, or sand. It is usually a hand tool consisting of a broad blade with edges or sides that is fixed to a medium-length handle. Hand shovels have been adapted for many different tasks and environments. They can be optimised for a single task or designed as crossover or compromise tools to perform multiple tasks. For example:




A coal shovel typically has a wide, flat blade with steeply turned sides, a flat face and a short D-shaped handle.

A shovel is designed primarily for breaking up ("spading") clumps of soil. A shovel usually has a point and is designed to be pushed into the soil with a foot. Spade blades usually have a rounded face without sharply upturned sides.

FFoorrkk ((BBrrooaadd))

In farming and gardening, the broad fork is a tool used to manually break up densely packed soil, like hardpan, to improve aeration and drainage. It consists of five or so metal tines, approximately 18-25 cm long, spaced a few centimetres apart on a horizontal bar, with two handles extending upwards to chest or shoulder level, forming a large U-shape.

The operator steps up on the crossbar, using full bodyweight to drive the tines into the ground, then steps backward while pulling backwards on the handles, causing the tines to lever upwards through the soil (imagine a giant comb or better, an Afro pick). This action leaves the soil layers intact, rather than inverting or mixing them, which preserves the topsoil structure. A broad fork can be used in a garden, or practically for one to two acres (4,000 to 8,000 m²).

55..44 AAnniimmaall DDrraawwnn TToooollss ffoorr SSooiill PPrreeppaarraattiioonn Animals, including horses, mules, oxen, camels, llamas, alpacas, and dogs; however, are still used to cultivate fields, harvest crops and transport farm products to markets in many parts of the world.




55..55 PPrreeppaarree aa PPiieeccee ooff GGrroouunndd ttoo AAcchhiieevvee tthhee AApppprroopprriiaattee TTiilltthh,, TTeexxttuurree && FFrriiaabbiilliittyy

When preparing a piece of land for planting, it is important to consider many things regarding how the final soil should, look and feel before we are ready to plant:

TTiilltthh Tilth is the physical condition of the soil as it relates to ease of tillage, seedbed quality, ease of seedling emergence, and deep root penetration. Good tilth is a sign of healthy soil organisms. While digesting , bacteria secrete gum and slime-like matter in the . This works like glue, binding soil particles and together to form aggregates. When preparing soil, rake the soil to a fine tilth. The finer the soil, the better foundation you will have for your seedlings.

BBuullkk DDeennssiittyy How heavy the soil is. In general, you want your soil to be light, but if it is too light the plant will topple over.

FFrriiaabbiilliittyy This has to do with texture. It must be easy for the roots to move through the soil. If you can stick your finger into it, then roots can grow through it easily.

WWaatteerr--hhoollddiinngg ccaappaacciittyy How well your soil can hold onto water. Remember, you want your soil to dry out between watering so the roots can breathe. If your soil is too good at holding water, it will never dry out, and your plants may suffer - in other words, rot.

AAiirr--ffiilllleedd ppoorree ssppaaccee 10 to 15% of your soil mix should be air. Materials like Perlite and shredded bark are chunky enough to create air space, letting the roots have oxygen, even when the soil is wet.

NNuuttrriieenntt--hhoollddiinngg ccaappaacciittyy Certain soils and soil mixtures are able to hold onto the nutrients better than others.

AAbbssoorrbbeennccyy How well your growing medium takes in water. Some materials, such as peat, are quite water repellent and should be moistened before planting and not allowed to dry out completely.




GGrraannuullee SSiizzee Fine particles, the small stuff in the bottom of the bag, will fill up all those air pores and water pores you've worked so hard for.

The advantages and disadvantages of effective and ineffective soil preparation, and the effects thereof on plant roots:

Advantages Effect on plant roots

Remove physical barriers from soil

Plant roots have space to grow Water logging and water tables are minimised or eliminated

Improve soil chemically Sufficient nutrients are available to plant roots in the right ratios Nutrient Deficiencies and Toxicity is avoided

Soil is loosened Roots grow easily and have access to minerals, water & nutrients in soil

Improved water conditions in soil

Soil retains sufficient water without water logging and plant roots don’t drown

Hard layers are removed

Plant roots grow and expand easily Water logging and water tables are eliminated

Disadvantages Effect on plant roots

Physical barriers remain in soil

Plant roots have insufficient space to grow Water logging, build-up of water tables and drowning of roots occur

Soil isn’t chemically improved

Insufficient or excessive minerals are present and plants suffer nutrient deficiency or toxicity

Soil remains compact Roots don’t expand Roots struggle to grow through soil Roots cannot access water, minerals and air Roots can possibly drown due to water logged conditions

Water conditions in soil is poor

Plants have insufficient water or drown due to water logging

Hard layers remain in soil profile

Water tables build up and plant roots drown

Don’t skimp on soil preparation… The more effort is put in the better the long-term rewards!

Use deep soil.

Use well aerated soil.

Be specific in combating natural enemies of your vines or trees before planting them i.e. weeds & pests.

Correct the soil chemistry.

Match the right soil type to the right crop, cultivars & root stock.







Let’s learn about the most basic methods of soil preparation - that require hand-held tools and low-technology ploughing implements.

The function and correct use of simple ploughing tools

Low-technology plough implements

The use of hand-held tools such as picks, shovels, forks

Animal drawn tools for soil preparation.

How to prepare a piece of ground to achieve the appropriate tilth, texture and friability.

The advantages and disadvantages of effective and ineffective soil preparation, and the effects thereof on plant roots.

MMyy NNootteess …… . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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MMyy NNootteess …… . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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BBiibblliiooggrraapphhyy BBooookkss:: Flynn, R.P., C.W. Wood, and E.A. Guertal. 1995. "Lettuce Response to Composted Broiler Litter as a Potting Substrate Component." Journal of the American Society for Horticultural Science 120(6):964-970.

Northeast Regional Agricultural Engineering Service. 1992. On-Farm Composting Handbook. NRAES-54. Northeast Regional Agricultural Engineering Service, 152 Riley-Robb Hall, Cooperative Extension

BioCycle Journal of Composting and Recycling; 419 State Avenue; Emmaus, PA, 18049

Abalu, G. & Hassan, R. 1998. Agricultural productivity and natural resource use in Southern Africa. Food Policy 23.

FAO. 2004. Comprehensive Africa Agricultural Development Programme Companion Document. Twenty-Third Regional Conference for Africa, Johannesburg, South Africa, 1-5 March 2004.

FAO. 1999. Agro-ecological zones, farming systems and land pressures in Africa and Asia.

Irz, X.; Lin, L., Thurtle, C. & Wiggens, S. 2001. Agricultural productivity and growth and poverty alleviation. Development Policy Review 19: pp 449-466.

UNEP (United Nations Environment Programme) 1997 Global environmental outlook. Oxford, Oxford University Press 2000 Global environmental outlook. Oxford, Oxford University Press

World Bank. 2002. Rural development strategy: reaching the rural poor. Washington, DC, The World Bank.

World Bank. 1997 Rural development: from vision to action. Environmentally and Socially Sustainable Development Studies Series 12, Washington, DC, the World Bank. Encyclopaedia Brittanica – South African Version

People Farming Workbook – Environmental and Development Agency Trust

Soil Classification – The Soil Classification Workgroup

WWoorrlldd WWiiddee WWeebb:: soil.gsfc.nasa.gov/basics.htm http://www.waite.adelaide.edu.au/school/Soil/zoo.html http://www.aglime.org.uk/ www.nrcs.usda.gov/feature/backyard/Mulching.html http://aesop.rutgers.edu/~njuep/csof/HandbookCh9.html www.omafra.gov.on.ca/.../ 2004/12cpo04a6.htm www.steve.gb.com/.../ nitrogen_deficiency.png




TTeerrmmss && CCoonnddiittiioonnss This material was developed with public funding and for that reason this material is available at no charge from the AgriSETA website (www.agriseta.co.za).

Users are free to reproduce and adapt this material to the maximum benefit of the learner.

No user is allowed to sell this material whatsoever.

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EExxcceerrpptt:: SSAAQQAA UUnniitt SSttaannddaarrdd:: 111166220066 -- NNQQFF LLeevveell 11

Title: Fertilise soil and attend to basic plant nutrition

Field: Agriculture and Nature Conservation Sub-field: Primary Agriculture

US No: 116206 NQF Level: 1 Credits: 5

PPuurrppoossee ooff tthhee UUnniitt SSttaannddaarrdd::

A learner achieving this unit standard will be able to apply soil nutrient preparations in a safe, effective and responsible manner to the benefit of plant/crop growth. Learners will gain specific knowledge and skills in soil fertilisation and plant nutrition and will be able to operate in a plant production environment implementing sustainable and economically viable production principles. They will be capacitated to gain access to the mainstream agricultural sector, in plant production, impacting directly on the sustainability of the sub-sector. The improvement in production technology will also have a direct impact on the improvement of agricultural productivity of the sector.

LLeeaarrnniinngg AAssssuummeedd ttoo bbee iinn PPllaaccee aanndd RReeccooggnniittiioonn ooff PPrriioorr LLeeaarrnniinngg

No learning is assumed.

UUnniitt SSttaannddaarrdd RRaannggee:: Whilst range statements have been defined generically to include as wide a set of alternatives as possible, all range statements should be interpreted within the specific context of application. Range statements are neither comprehensive nor necessarily appropriate to all contexts. Alternatives must however be comparable in scope and complexity. These are only as a general guide to scope and complexity of what is required.

SSppeecciiffiicc OOuuttccoommee ((SSOO)) 11:: Apply appropriate nutrient substances to soils or crops under close supervision. Outcome Range: Soil nutrition includes but is not limited to soil nutrients (lime, liquid fertiliser, chemical fertilisers [single and mixtures], trace elements) and can include organic soil improvement methods and substances and techniques (compost, organic teas, and mulching). The methods and techniques of applications can include manual, broadcast, liquid methods, leaf nutrition and slurry, depending on what is required in the specific context. Assessment Criteria (AC): 1. The ability to apply a pre-measured amount of the correct

soil nutrition substance on an indicated area of soil is demonstrated.

2. The ability to identify nutrients that will be applied is demonstrated.

SSppeecciiffiicc OOuuttccoommee ((SSOO)) 22:: Understand how to make compost and when to use it. Outcome Range: Basic understanding of Carbon-Nitrogen ratios, familiarity with the value of common local sources of organic waste; understanding of the importance of soil organic matter and its role in holding soil nutrients and water, and in combating soil acidity. Assessment Criteria (AC): 1. How to store manure so that nutrients are not lost is shown. 2. Making a compost heap, mixing manure (or other nitrogen

source) with organic matter, adding appropriate amounts of water is demonstrated.

3. The composting process is managed and it is recognised when compost is ready to use, and the nutrient-loss dangers of leaving the heap too long is recognised.

SSppeecciiffiicc OOuuttccoommee ((SSOO)) 33:: Identify basic symptoms of nutritional deficiencies in different crops. Outcome Range: Nitrogen, Phosphorous and Magnesium deficiencies. Assessment Criteria (AC): 1. The colour change on plant leaves, and/or fruit/ plant

abnormalities, compared with healthy plants is recognised. 2. The position of the discoloured leaves is described.

SSppeecciiffiicc OOuuttccoommee ((SSOO)) 44:: Demonstrate a basic understanding of soil properties. Outcome Range: Soil properties refer to the texture and structure, water holding and drainage capacity, and soil composition in terms of silt/clay/gravel ratios. Assessment Criteria (AC): 1. Soil structure and texture are identified using simple tests/

observations. 2. Composition of soil based on simple tests and observations is

described. 3. The advantages and disadvantages of different soil types in a

specific context are described.

SSppeecciiffiicc OOuuttccoommee ((SSOO)) 55:: Apply soil preparation tasks that require hand-held tools and low-technology ploughing implements. Outcome Range: Soil preparation refers to low-technology plough implements and hand-held tools such as picks, shovels, forks and/or animal drawn tools for soil preparation. Soil preparation refers to the application of tools to prepare a piece of ground to achieve appropriate tilth, texture and friability. Assessment Criteria (AC): 1. The advantages and disadvantages of effective and

ineffective soil preparation are described, as well as their effects on plant roots.

2. The function and correct use of simple ploughing tools in soil preparation are explained and demonstrated.

UUnniitt SSttaannddaarrdd EEsssseennttiiaall EEmmbbeeddddeedd KKnnoowwlleeddggee The person achieving this unit standard is able to: • Use specific types of nutrient substances. • Work within identified safety standards. • Measure accurately. • Apply specified substances. • Have a basic understanding of soil profiles, structure and

texture, about the physical components of soil, the biological components of soil, how soil is formed, how nutrients are absorbed by plants.

• How to conduct simple soil tests and observations in order to make basic soil assessments based on texture, colour, vegetative cover, and smell.

• How seeds germinate and what kind of environment is needed to achieve maximum and effective germination and early root growth.

• What tools to achieve with which soil preparation results. • The learner must know the difference between wanted and

unwanted vegetation. Essential Embedded Knowledge The person is able to demonstrate a basic knowledge of: • Application methods of nutrients. • Need for nutrients for plants. • Basic soil preparation. • Basic soil conservation.

CCrriittiiccaall CCrroossss--ffiieelldd OOuuttccoommeess ((CCCCFFOO)):: The following relates to all specific outcomes: Identifying: Problem Solving: relates to all outcomes. Working: Teamwork: relates to all outcomes. Organizing: Self-management: relates to all outcomes. Collecting: Interpreting Information: relates to all outcomes. Communicating: Communicate: relates to all outcomes. Science: Use Science and Technology: relates to all outcomes. Demonstrating: The world as a set of related systems: relates to all outcomes. Contributing: Self-development: relates to all outcomes.

Primary Agriculture Fertilise Soil & Attend to Basic Plant ... · Have a basic understanding of...

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