community.ump.edu.my · M. A. Hossain, Sujaul Islam Mir*, Nasly Mohammed Ali, Edriyana A. Aziz ......

Copy Right Universiti Malaysia Pahang, 2012First Published, 2012

Anugerah Ilham Management & ServicesB62, Pusat Komersial Semambu,

Jalan Semambu25350 Kuantan, Pahang

iii

TABLE OF CONTENTS

01 Table of Contents iii

02 Editorial Board v

03 Introduction vii

04 Aims & Scopes vii

05 An Exploratory Study on the Potential of Implementing Building Information Modelling (BIM) in Malaysian Construction Industry: Lesson Learnt from Singapore and Hong Kong Construction Industry Zahrizan Zakaria1*, Nasly Mohamed Ali1, Amanda Marshall-Ponting2, Ahmad Tarmizi Haron1 Zuhairi Abd Hamid3

1Faculty of Civil Engineering and Earth Resources, University Malaysia Pahang, Gambang, Kuantan, 2School of Build Environment, University of Salford Manchester, Salford, United Kingdom, 3Construction Research Institute of Malaysia (CREAM), Construction Industry Development Board (CIDB), Cheras, Kuala Lumpur

1 - 6

06 Derivation of Reliable and Consistent Volume Delay Functions for Town Road Network Based On Users Feedback Adnan Zulkiple*, Sharifah Awang Faculty of Civil Engineering & Earth Resources,University Malaysia Pahang, Malaysia

7 - 12

07 Application of GIS for Detecting Changes of Land Use and Land Cover in Tasik Chini Watershed, Pahang, Malaysia Sujaul Islam Mir1*, B.S. Ismail2, Muhammad Barzani Gasim2, Mohd Ekhwan Toriman3, Sahibin Abd. Rahim2, Zularisam Ab Wahid1 1Faculty of Civil Engineering & Earth Resources, Universiti Malaysia Pahang, Malaysia 2School of environment and Natural Resource Sciences, FST, Kebangsaan Malaysia 3School of Social Development and Environmental Studies, FSSK, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia

13 - 22

08 Improving Peat Engineering Properties by Natural Mineral Mixture Nurmunira Muhammad, Abdoullah Namdar*, Ideris Bin Zakaria Faculty of Civil Engineering & Earth Resources, Universiti Malaysia Pahang, Malaysia

23 – 28

09 Transformer Explosion and Impact on the Reinforced Blast Wall Mazlan Abu Seman1, Feng Yun Tian2, Zainorizuan Mohd Jaini3, Nasly Mohammed Ali1 1Faculty of Civil Engineering & Earth Resources, Universiti Malaysia Pahang, Malaysia 2Civil & Computational Engineering Centre, College of Engineering, Swansea University, Wales, United Kingdom 3Faculty of Civil & Environmental Engineering , Universiti Tun Hussein Onn Malaysia, Malaysia

29 - 34

Copy Right Universiti Malaysia Pahang, 2012First Published, 2012

Anugerah Ilham Management & ServicesB62, Pusat Komersial Semambu,

Jalan Semambu25350 Kuantan, Pahang

iv

10 Laboratory Testing on Permanent Deformation of Grooved Concrete Block Pavement Azman Mohamed1*, Hasanan Md Nor2, Mohd Rosli Hainin2, Haryati Yaacob2, Che Ros Ismail2, Nur Hafizah Abd Khalid3 1Department of Civil Engineering, Razak School of Engineering and Advanced Technology, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, International Campus, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia 2Department of Geotechnics and Transportation, Faculty of Civil Engineering, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, Johor, Malaysia 3Department of Structure and Materials, Faculty of Civil Engineering, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, Johor, Malaysia

35 - 40

11 Sewage Water Treatment by Electrocoagulation Process Mohd Nasrullah , Zularisam Ab. Wahid*, Ideris Zakaria, Fadzil Yahaya Faculty of Civil Engineering & Earth Resources, Universiti Malaysia Pahang, Malaysia

41 - 46

12 Engineering Properties of Concrete with Laterite Aggregate as Partial Coarse Aggregate Replacement Norul Wahida Kamaruzaman, Khairunisa Muthusamy* Faculty of Civil Engineering & Earth Resources, Universiti Malaysia Pahang, Malaysia

47 - 50

13 Assessment of Spatial Variation of Surface Water Quality at Gebeng Industrial Estate, Pahang, Malaysia M. A. Hossain, Sujaul Islam Mir*, Nasly Mohammed Ali, Edriyana A. Aziz Faculty of Civil Engineering & Earth Resources, Universiti Malaysia Pahang, Malaysia

51 - 56

14 Equilibrium, thermodynamic and kinetic studies for removal of Chromium from aqueous solution by Grafted copolymer Anwar Ahmad1, Lakhveer Singh2*, Zularisam Abd. Wahid2, Ideris Zakaria2 1Department of Civil & Engineering, King Saud University, Saudi Arabia (KSU) 2Faculty of Civil Engineering & Earth Resources, Universiti Malaysia Pahang

57 - 62

15 Guidelines for Author and Sample 63 - 70

iv

10 Laboratory Testing on Permanent Deformation of Grooved Concrete Block Pavement Azman Mohamed1*, Hasanan Md Nor2, Mohd Rosli Hainin2, Haryati Yaacob2, Che Ros Ismail2, Nur Hafizah Abd Khalid3 1Department of Civil Engineering, Razak School of Engineering and Advanced Technology, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, International Campus, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia 2Department of Geotechnics and Transportation, Faculty of Civil Engineering, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, Johor, Malaysia 3Department of Structure and Materials, Faculty of Civil Engineering, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, Johor, Malaysia

35 - 40

11 Sewage Water Treatment by Electrocoagulation Process Mohd Nasrullah , Zularisam Ab. Wahid*, Ideris Zakaria, Fadzil Yahaya Faculty of Civil Engineering & Earth Resources, Universiti Malaysia Pahang, Malaysia

41 - 46

12 Engineering Properties of Concrete with Laterite Aggregate as Partial Coarse Aggregate Replacement Norul Wahida Kamaruzaman, Khairunisa Muthusamy* Faculty of Civil Engineering & Earth Resources, Universiti Malaysia Pahang, Malaysia

47 - 50

13 Assessment of Spatial Variation of Surface Water Quality at Gebeng Industrial Estate, Pahang, Malaysia M. A. Hossain, Sujaul Islam Mir*, Nasly Mohammed Ali, Edriyana A. Aziz Faculty of Civil Engineering & Earth Resources, Universiti Malaysia Pahang, Malaysia

51 - 56

14 Equilibrium, thermodynamic and kinetic studies for removal of Chromium from aqueous solution by Grafted copolymer Anwar Ahmad1, Lakhveer Singh2*, Zularisam Abd. Wahid2, Ideris Zakaria2 1Department of Civil & Engineering, King Saud University, Saudi Arabia (KSU) 2Faculty of Civil Engineering & Earth Resources, Universiti Malaysia Pahang

57 - 62

15 Guidelines for Author and Sample 63 - 70

v

EDITORIAL BOARD

I EDITOR-IN-CHIEF PROFESSOR ENGR. DR. IDERIS ZAKARIA (Universiti Malaysia Pahang, MALAYSIA) Email : [email protected]

II ASSISTANT TO EDITOR-IN-CHIEF

ENGR. NORHAIZA GHAZALI (Universiti Malaysia Pahang, MALAYSIA) Email : [email protected]

III EDITOR

ASSOC. PROF. ENGR. DR. ZULARISAM BIN ABD WAHID (Universiti Malaysia Pahang, MALAYSIA)

IV EDITORIAL BOARD MEMBERS PROFESSOR DATIN DR. NASLY MOHAMED ALI

(Universiti Malaysia Pahang, MALAYSIA) PROFESSOR DR. HAMIDI ABD.AZIZ

(Universiti Sains Malaysia, MALAYSIA) PROFESSOR DR. HARIYANTO RAHARDJO (Nanyang Technological University, SINGAPORE) PROFESSOR DR. MALEK BOUAZZA

(Monash University, AUSTRALIA) PROFESSOR DR. TAKESHI MATSUURA (University of Ottawa, CANADA) PROFESSOR DR. AHMAD FAUZI ISMAIL

(Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, MALAYSIA) PROFESSOR IR. DR. ABD. WAHAB MUHAMMAD (Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, MALAYSIA) PROFESSOR DR. TABREZ ALAM KHAN (Jamia Millia Islamia, INDIA) PROFESSOR DR. MOHD. RAZMAN SALIM

(Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, MALAYSIA) PROF. DR.WEQAR AHMAD SIDDIQUI

(Jamia Millia Islamia, INDIA) PROF. MADYA DR. ANWAR AHMAD (King Saud University, KSA) PROF DR. IR. HJ SUPLI EFFENDI RAHIM (Universitas Palembang, INDONESIA) PROF DR. IR. HAJJAH ERIKA BUCHORI (Sriwijaya University, INDONESIA) DR. IR. HJ. ANWAR YAMIN (Institute, Bandung, INDONESIA) PROF. MADYA IR. ADNAN ZULKIFLE (Universiti Malaysia Pahang, MALAYSIA)

vi

PROF. MADYA IR. DR. AMINUDDIN MOHD BAKI (Universiti Teknologi Mara, MALAYSIA) PROF. MADYA DR. RAMLAH TAJUDIN (Universiti Teknologi Mara, MALAYSIA) PROF. MADYA DR. JOHAN SOHAILI (Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, MALAYSIA) PROF. MADYA IR. DR. ACHMAD FAUZI WAHAB (Universiti Malaysia Pahang, MALAYSIA) ENGR. DR. FADHIL MAT DIN (Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, MALAYSIA) ENGR. DR. SHARIFAH MASZURA SYED MOHSIN (Universiti Malaysia Pahang, MALAYSIA) IR. DR. TUTUK DJOKO KUSWORO (Universitas Diponegoro, INDONESIA) DR. ANEES AHMAD

(King Saud University, KSA) DR. SHAMSHAD AHMAD KHAN (King Saud University, KSA)

ENGR. NORAM RAMLI (Universiti Malaysia Pahang, MALAYSIA) ENGR. ABD SYUKOR ABD RAZAK (Universiti Malaysia Pahang, MALAYSIA) ENGR. FADZIL MAT YAHYA (Universiti Malaysia Pahang, MALAYSIA) ENGR. AHMAD TARMIZI HARON (Universiti Malaysia Pahang, MALAYSIA)

V EDITORIAL BOARD ASSISTANTS

ENGR. ZAHRIZAN BIN ZAKARIA (Universiti Malaysia Pahang, MALAYSIA) ENGR. NADIAH BINTI MOKHTAR (Universiti Malaysia Pahang, MALAYSIA) ENGR. NURUL QASTALANI (Universiti Malaysia Pahang, MALAYSIA) ENGR. NOR ASHIKIN BINTI MUHAMAD KHAIRUSSALEH (Universiti Malaysia Pahang, MALAYSIA) ENGR. ROSLINA BINTI OMAR (Universiti Malaysia Pahang, MALAYSIA) MADAM ERNIE NURAZLIN LIZAM (Universiti Malaysia Pahang, MALAYSIA)

VI E-mail: [email protected]

vi

PROF. MADYA IR. DR. AMINUDDIN MOHD BAKI (Universiti Teknologi Mara, MALAYSIA) PROF. MADYA DR. RAMLAH TAJUDIN (Universiti Teknologi Mara, MALAYSIA) PROF. MADYA DR. JOHAN SOHAILI (Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, MALAYSIA) PROF. MADYA IR. DR. ACHMAD FAUZI WAHAB (Universiti Malaysia Pahang, MALAYSIA) ENGR. DR. FADHIL MAT DIN (Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, MALAYSIA) ENGR. DR. SHARIFAH MASZURA SYED MOHSIN (Universiti Malaysia Pahang, MALAYSIA) IR. DR. TUTUK DJOKO KUSWORO (Universitas Diponegoro, INDONESIA) DR. ANEES AHMAD

(King Saud University, KSA) DR. SHAMSHAD AHMAD KHAN (King Saud University, KSA)

ENGR. NORAM RAMLI (Universiti Malaysia Pahang, MALAYSIA) ENGR. ABD SYUKOR ABD RAZAK (Universiti Malaysia Pahang, MALAYSIA) ENGR. FADZIL MAT YAHYA (Universiti Malaysia Pahang, MALAYSIA) ENGR. AHMAD TARMIZI HARON (Universiti Malaysia Pahang, MALAYSIA)

V EDITORIAL BOARD ASSISTANTS

ENGR. ZAHRIZAN BIN ZAKARIA (Universiti Malaysia Pahang, MALAYSIA) ENGR. NADIAH BINTI MOKHTAR (Universiti Malaysia Pahang, MALAYSIA) ENGR. NURUL QASTALANI (Universiti Malaysia Pahang, MALAYSIA) ENGR. NOR ASHIKIN BINTI MUHAMAD KHAIRUSSALEH (Universiti Malaysia Pahang, MALAYSIA) ENGR. ROSLINA BINTI OMAR (Universiti Malaysia Pahang, MALAYSIA) MADAM ERNIE NURAZLIN LIZAM (Universiti Malaysia Pahang, MALAYSIA)

VI E-mail: [email protected]

vii

INTRODUCTION

The International Journal of Civil Engineering & Geo-Environment is a peer-reviewed international

publication, valuable to those who are interested in the issues relevant to the civil engineering field.

It is a multi-disciplinary effort involving professionals, practitioners and scientists. It will

specifically provide a unifying basis bringing together engineers, architects, designers, project

managers, and construction managers, among others.

AIMS & SCOPES

The International Journal of Civil Engineering & Geo-Environment, a peer-reviewed journal, aims

to provide the most complete and reliable source of information on recent developments in civil

engineering. Papers which describe theoretical and research related to the broad spectrum of civil

engineering with similar emphasis on all topics are most welcome.

The International Journal of Civil Engineering & Geo-Environment welcomes articles and research

contributions on following areas:

Structures & Materials Engineering

Hydraulics and Hydrology Engineering

Soil Mechanics / Geotechnical Engineering

Construction Engineering & Project Management

Highway and Transportation Engineering

Environmental Studies & Wastewater Engineering

The journal accepts original research papers, reviews, short communications and discussion. Short

communications should not exceed 4-6 printed pages and should be a concise and complete

description of an investigation.

Audience: Engineers, Academicians, Scientists.

______________ *corresponding author. Tel: 609-5493007; fax: 609-5492998 *Email address: [email protected]

An Exploratory Study on the Potential of Implementing Building Information Modelling (BIM) in Malaysian Construction Industry: Lesson Learnt from Singapore and Hong Kong Construction Industry Zahrizan Zakaria1*; Nasly, Mohamed Ali1; Amanda Marshall-Ponting2; Ahmad, Tarmizi Haron1, Zuhairi, Abd Hamid3 1Faculty of Civil Engineering and Earth Resources, University Malaysia Pahang, Gambang, Kuantan, 2School of Build Environment, University of Salford Manchester, Salford, United Kingdom, 3Construction Research Institute of Malaysia (CREAM), Construction Industry Development Board (CIDB), Cheras, Kuala Lumpur ________________________________________________________________________________

___________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ _______________________ ___________________________________________________________________

For a decade, construction industry can be considered as a fragmented industry because of lacking of sharing information through its life cycle and with other parties. Information Technology (IT) can be a tool for integrating and collaborating among parties in the construction projects, and Building Information Modelling (BIM) is one of the platforms that can be used to promote the collaboration between parties in the construction projects. Basically, BIM will act like a respiratory system with full of information to share with for construction projects. Even though there are lots of benefits can be gained by utilisation of BIM, it is a difficult task to convince the construction companies to embrace and implementing it due to some reasons. Since there is a sort of understanding of BIM by the construction companies in Malaysia. This paper is intended to review the strategy and action plan from Singapore and Hong Kong in adopting and implement BIM, which could be used in supporting the implementation of BIM in Malaysian Construction Industry. Therefore, this paper reviews the strategy and action plan from Singapore and Hong Kong in adopting and implement BIM, which could be used in supporting the implementation of BIM in Malaysian Construction Industry. Malaysia could learn from these countries because they can be classified as a new comer in implementing BIM compared to other's countries such as the United States of America, United Kingdom, Finland, Denmark, Australia and Norway, which are more advanced in implementing BIM.

Keywords: Information and Communication Technology (ICT), Malaysian Construction Industry, Building Information Modelling (BIM), Strategic Plan

International Journal of Civil Engineering and

Geo-Environmental

Journal homepage: http://ijceg.ump.edu.my ISSN: 21802742

A B S T R A C T A R T I C L E I N F O

International Journal of Civil Engineering & Geo-Environmental 3 (2012) ______________________________________________________________________________________________________

2

1. Introduction

Many researchers like Kaner et al. [1]; Khanzode et al. [2] and Staub-French and Fischer [3] regard Building Information Modelling (BIM) as a combination of Information and Communication Technology (ICT) product and process that can improve the construction process by improving the information exchange between parties in the construction projects because construction always regards as a fragmented industry due to its nature. BIM can be referred as the process of creating and using 3D parametric computer-aided-design (CAD) technologies for design that allows exchanging information within the construction project team in a digital format [4]; [5]; [6] and [7]. This model can be passed digitally between consultants in the construction projects How BIM can act as an integration platform in the construction industry? Amine and Nathaniel, [8] further explain that, in BIM, any model objects will carry their own geometry and attributes, when any authorised parties made any changes to an object, the system will change to all relevant views and documents of the project with no further modification, and the updated object can be shared by other's parties in the construction projects. The most important is the creation and contributions of information are from the collaboration between different parties in the construction projects. The used of BIM allows them to interact and communicate effectively between parties in the construction projects. These activities show how BIM can be an enabler for collaborative activities in the construction projects. 2. Malaysian’s Construction Industry:

Backgrounds and Issues

In Malaysia, the construction industry is one of the economic sectors after manufacturing and agriculture in contributing to Malaysian economics [9]. Shari [10], reported that since seventies until the eighty's construction industry in Malaysia has expanded from 6% to 15%, this shows how importance construction industry to the growth of the Malaysian economy. During the economic downturn from mid of 2007 until 2008 because of global financial crisis, the construction industry in Malaysia enjoyed an additional budget amounting to RM60 billion under government driven stimulus package to spur the construction activities in Malaysia [11]. Despite having a strong support from the Malaysian government, in reality, Malaysian construction industry facing a serious problem such as too depending on unskilled and foreign labour, low productivity and lack of innovation in construction [9]. Murali, S. and Soon, Y. W. [12] added about 17.3%, government contract projects in Malaysia were considered sick because of delay more than three months or abandoned due to various causes in the year 2005. Intan et al. [13] found that in Malaysia for public sector projects, only 46.8% projects completed within budget while for the private sector about 37.2% projects completed within budget. These figures show how serious the problems of Malaysian construction industry are facing and delay in

completing the construction projects will contribute in increasing cost and time overrun.

There are lots of factors that contribute to cost and

time overrun occur resulting from delay in the Malaysian construction industry. Abdul Rahman et al. [14] revealed that in Malaysia, a delay in the completion dates during the construction phase is almost 45.9%. Various researchers revealed that, the most prominent factor why delay starting to evolve during the construction phase is improperly managed the construction projects. These resulting delays during construction phase such fail to estimate the construction activities and duration resulting difficulty in planning, monitoring and controlling the construction projects, under estimate the project cost and fail to distribute the cost accordingly and misinterpret the design details [15]; [16] and [17]. We cannot solely accuse contractors as a main contributor to the delays in the construction projects, mainly these factors are interrelated within clients, consultants and contractors. Late payment received from the client, inadequate client’s finance, late of decision making done by the client to any amended, and interferences from clients are the elements that contribute to delay in construction projects [14]; [12] and [18], and its effect the capability of contractors in completing his tasks. While, Abdul Rahman and Berawi [19] identified delays caused by the consultants can be classified into four main items: problems in detail design, slow correction of design problems and late inform and distribute the new design details, late review of shop drawings, and delay in tests and inspections. These factors can lead to delay in construction phase where the consultants fail to give appropriate and complete details to the contractor to perform the work in time, and the consequence is the contractor can be missed interpreting detail designs due to time constrain.

As the summary, there is a hiccup in terms of

communication and transmitting the information between parties in the construction project in Malaysia and there is an urgency to establish an innovative approach to ensure all the information can be distributed equally among different parties in the construction projects through its life cycle. Therefore, each party needs a platform that can enhance the way of communication and the same time to share and to disseminate the information effectively and efficiently. 3. What Building Information Modelling

(BIM) can offer to Malaysian Construction Industry

To enhance the image of the construction industry in Malaysia as one of the most sectors contributing to the Malaysia’s economic and having a full support from the government of Malaysia, there is the urgency to shift the paradigm from using the traditional approach into more innovative approach and the same time able to increase the operational performance of construction projects. The construction industry in Malaysia needs to evolve by upgrading the current construction approach, whether in


2

1. Introduction

Many researchers like Kaner et al. [1]; Khanzode et al. [2] and Staub-French and Fischer [3] regard Building Information Modelling (BIM) as a combination of Information and Communication Technology (ICT) product and process that can improve the construction process by improving the information exchange between parties in the construction projects because construction always regards as a fragmented industry due to its nature. BIM can be referred as the process of creating and using 3D parametric computer-aided-design (CAD) technologies for design that allows exchanging information within the construction project team in a digital format [4]; [5]; [6] and [7]. This model can be passed digitally between consultants in the construction projects How BIM can act as an integration platform in the construction industry? Amine and Nathaniel, [8] further explain that, in BIM, any model objects will carry their own geometry and attributes, when any authorised parties made any changes to an object, the system will change to all relevant views and documents of the project with no further modification, and the updated object can be shared by other's parties in the construction projects. The most important is the creation and contributions of information are from the collaboration between different parties in the construction projects. The used of BIM allows them to interact and communicate effectively between parties in the construction projects. These activities show how BIM can be an enabler for collaborative activities in the construction projects. 2. Malaysian’s Construction Industry:

Backgrounds and Issues

In Malaysia, the construction industry is one of the economic sectors after manufacturing and agriculture in contributing to Malaysian economics [9]. Shari [10], reported that since seventies until the eighty's construction industry in Malaysia has expanded from 6% to 15%, this shows how importance construction industry to the growth of the Malaysian economy. During the economic downturn from mid of 2007 until 2008 because of global financial crisis, the construction industry in Malaysia enjoyed an additional budget amounting to RM60 billion under government driven stimulus package to spur the construction activities in Malaysia [11]. Despite having a strong support from the Malaysian government, in reality, Malaysian construction industry facing a serious problem such as too depending on unskilled and foreign labour, low productivity and lack of innovation in construction [9]. Murali, S. and Soon, Y. W. [12] added about 17.3%, government contract projects in Malaysia were considered sick because of delay more than three months or abandoned due to various causes in the year 2005. Intan et al. [13] found that in Malaysia for public sector projects, only 46.8% projects completed within budget while for the private sector about 37.2% projects completed within budget. These figures show how serious the problems of Malaysian construction industry are facing and delay in

completing the construction projects will contribute in increasing cost and time overrun.

There are lots of factors that contribute to cost and

time overrun occur resulting from delay in the Malaysian construction industry. Abdul Rahman et al. [14] revealed that in Malaysia, a delay in the completion dates during the construction phase is almost 45.9%. Various researchers revealed that, the most prominent factor why delay starting to evolve during the construction phase is improperly managed the construction projects. These resulting delays during construction phase such fail to estimate the construction activities and duration resulting difficulty in planning, monitoring and controlling the construction projects, under estimate the project cost and fail to distribute the cost accordingly and misinterpret the design details [15]; [16] and [17]. We cannot solely accuse contractors as a main contributor to the delays in the construction projects, mainly these factors are interrelated within clients, consultants and contractors. Late payment received from the client, inadequate client’s finance, late of decision making done by the client to any amended, and interferences from clients are the elements that contribute to delay in construction projects [14]; [12] and [18], and its effect the capability of contractors in completing his tasks. While, Abdul Rahman and Berawi [19] identified delays caused by the consultants can be classified into four main items: problems in detail design, slow correction of design problems and late inform and distribute the new design details, late review of shop drawings, and delay in tests and inspections. These factors can lead to delay in construction phase where the consultants fail to give appropriate and complete details to the contractor to perform the work in time, and the consequence is the contractor can be missed interpreting detail designs due to time constrain.

As the summary, there is a hiccup in terms of

communication and transmitting the information between parties in the construction project in Malaysia and there is an urgency to establish an innovative approach to ensure all the information can be distributed equally among different parties in the construction projects through its life cycle. Therefore, each party needs a platform that can enhance the way of communication and the same time to share and to disseminate the information effectively and efficiently. 3. What Building Information Modelling

(BIM) can offer to Malaysian Construction Industry

To enhance the image of the construction industry in Malaysia as one of the most sectors contributing to the Malaysia’s economic and having a full support from the government of Malaysia, there is the urgency to shift the paradigm from using the traditional approach into more innovative approach and the same time able to increase the operational performance of construction projects. The construction industry in Malaysia needs to evolve by upgrading the current construction approach, whether in

An Exploratory Study on the Potential of Implementing Building Information Modelling (BIM) in Malaysian Construction Industry: Lesson Learnt from Singapore and Hong Kong Construction Industry

3

terms of practice, management or technology in order to meet the global standard. Information Technology (IT) can be exploited to develop a new technology that can offer a platform for integrating between different parties in the construction industry in an innovative way. So, now is a perfect time to implement BIM in Malaysian construction industry, which is in line with the needs of the government of Malaysia to strengthen the construction industry’s image.

There are lots of benefits that BIM can offer to

Malaysian construction industry, especially in enhancing the communication between different parties in construction projects. BIM able to streamline and aids clear communication between client, consultant and contractor in construction projects by providing a single respiratory system for exchanging digital information in one or more agreed format. Khanzode and Fisher [20] and Azhar et al. [21] believed that, this approach can reduce errors associated with inconsistent and uncoordinated project documents because BIM capable of carry all information related to the building, including its physical and functional characteristics and project life cycle information, in a series of “smart objects.” Fig. 1 shows the vision of BIM to promote the collaborative approach between parties in construction projects. Other benefits that BIM can offer besides enhancing the collaboration between different parties are having better design and drawing coordination, constructability conflict resolutions, automated cost estimating and simulation of project planning [22] and [3].

Fig. 1: The vision of BIM in integrating the different parties through BIM

In the summary, BIM could offer the Malaysian construction industry as an innovative way that could improve the design process by providing improved and continuous assessment of the design and ease design amendment, improved communication through a project’s life cycle, enhanced coordination, planning, scheduling and monitoring of construction projects and able to provide a real information of “as built” construction projects. However, despite a lot of benefits gained from BIM, implementing BIM in Malaysian

construction industry need a good and clear roadmap or strategy that can assist Malaysian construction players to successfully adopting BIM. Smith and Tardif [23]; Succar [24] and Eastman et al. [5], agreed that the implementation of BIM requires a strategic implementation plan to gain the full benefit from BIM, otherwise the construction industry will benefit from a small subset of what BIM has to offer. 4. Implementing Building Information

Modelling (BIM)

In Malaysian construction industry, the widespread of Information and Communication Technology (ICT) and the influence of ICT to speed up the working process cannot be deniable, however according to Steward et al. [25]; majorities of construction industry players are still unable to gain the benefits from it. Mui at al. [26] believed there are many of the companies invest in technology advancement because they simply followed the others companies that successfully implement ICT without doing feasibility studies. They are not aware of the problems might be arisen, what is the right strategies and why they need that technology, while Yusuf and Othman [27] added that lacking in training and limited by expert users in the area of ICT in construction industry worsen the current situation. Meanwhile, Wade and Hulland [28] viewed that some of the organisation failed to adopt and adapt the rapid changing of ICT technologies, practices, process and expertise in their organisational processes. To avoid these pitfalls, a thorough study needed to be carried out to identify the right approach or strategy in adopting BIM in construction industry. 4.1 BIM Implementation by Singapore

In Singapore, CORENET (COnstruction and Real Estate NETwork ) was launched in 1995 with its goal to ‘to reengineer and streamline the fragmented work processes in the construction industry, so as to achieve quantum improvements in turnaround time, quality and productivity.’ CORENET which is lead by the Ministry of National Development and driven by the Building and Construction Authority (BSA) is the main organisation involved in the development and implementation of BIM for government projects [29]. A study conducted by Khemlani [30] revealed that Singapore promoting the usage of BIM since 1997 which is started with an e - submission system to submit the building approval plan called e-PlanCheck. Under this system any submission for approvals must used of BIM as one of their conditions. Currently CORENET already completed the development of BIM Guideline to support the implementation of Building Information Modelling (BIM) called ‘Integrated Plan Checking’.

It is not easy to shift the paradigm from the

traditional approach into innovation approach. According to Evelyn and Fatt [31], first approach done by CORENET in order to achieve its goal is gaining a support from the BSA and Singapore chapter of the


4

International Alliance for Interoperability (IAI). A development of e-PlanCheck must comply with Industry Foundation Classes (IFC) standards. It is one of the critical success factors for smoothing the pace of adoption of the system. Another factor is building owner and Computer Aided Design (CAD) users required that all the CAD software must IFC-compliant to tender any projects under the BSA. This to ensure that any software that be used by the construction players able to communicate with e-PlanCheck.

CORENET has developed its own strategy and action

plan to ensure this system well accepted and can be fully used in the real environment. There are five actions in CORENET’s strategy and action plan which are;

a) Conducting seminar to disseminate the capabilities of BIM technology through seminars, forums and discussion among industry and academia.

b) Pilot testing with the industry to identify if there any setback of the system and to gain the feedback from the users to enhance the capability of the system.

c) Collaborating with Institute Higher Learning in order to assist the industry in the use of 3D BIM in their works and conduct research related with BIM technologies and process.

d) Provide the training grants to enhance the knowledge of the works in the use of IFC-BIM based tools.

e) Collaborate with the government bodies and developers to stipulate the requirement of the 3D IFC CAD model in the building contract as mandatory.

[31]. 4.2 BIM Implementation in Hong Kong In Hong Kong Building Information Modelling (BIM) known as Object Oriented Computer-Aided Design (OOCAD) and the government of Hong Kong through one of its agencies Hong Kong Development Bureau realised that, the current Computer-Aided Design (CAD) which is widely used in the construction industry cannot be directly applied into BIM. In order to increase the usage of OOCAD, a working group named The Works Project Information Standard (WPIS) was established under the policy agenda for the 2005 policy. The WPIS working group will be working closely with the other working group which monitoring and controlling the existing CAD software named The CAD Standard for Works Projects (CSWP) working group. One of the tasks for WPIS working group is to come out with any recommendation for the requirements of OOCAD before a new standard to support BIM can be issued [32].

In 2007, discussion between WPIS working group,

CSWP working group, the construction players and the vendors of software realised that in private sector projects, there is a growing trend to utilise the BIM in their projects. During the discussion session, there are few recommendations have been given for the adoption of BIM in Hong Kong, which is;

a) WPIS and the CWSP working group will study and analyse the impacts and barriers when migrate from CAD standard and OOCAD standard and the future trend of BIM software.

b) Come out with a clear road map to indicate the time frame for implementing BIM and provide a strategic plan to assist the industry players in implementing BIM.

[33] The widespread of the BIM in Hong Kong is very fast

after that discussion, and as a result the Hong Kong Institute of Building Information Modelling (HKIBIM) was established in 2009. This effort has come from a group of Hong Kong corporations, stakeholders and experts in BIM application. In general, the objectives of HKIBIM are to promote and create awareness of BIM, to enhance the utilisation of BIM, to develop and establish the standard of BIM practices, conduct a research for improvement and to establish BIM Guideline for Hong Kong [34].

HKIBIM provides a platform to industry players,

including the government of Hong Kong agencies to gather and to discuss on how to improve the implementation of BIM in Hong Kong. HKIBIM viewing that there is a possibility of increasing the usage of BIM in Hong Kong. Therefore, HKIBIM recommends some strategy action for the government to take for regulating the utilisation of BIM solution as followed; a) Develop BIM implementation guidelines that can

assist the construction players in implementing BIM and the same time it could give a clearer picture where BIM in Hong Kong heading to.

b) Pilot testing is one of the strategies, especially for a newcomer who had the intention to implement BIM, and the government should encourage some construction companies that secure any contract to adopt and implement the partial part of BIM components. Incentives can be given to any construction players who implement BIM in their construction projects

c) Seminars, colloquiums, workshops and forum are the platforms that can be used to share the knowledge, experiences, expertise and discussion that can promote and improve the implementation of BIM.

d) Since the implementation of BIM new in Hong Kong, the government of Hong Kong should establish a new department in any agencies that could monitor and evaluate the process of adopting and implement BIM in construction industry.

e) The BIM policy should recommend that the design information be open and made available to other partners so that the design can be easily understood and evaluated [32].

5. Lesson Learnt from Singapore and Hong

Kong

Singapore and Hong Kong seemly enjoyed the strong support from their government to push Building


4

International Alliance for Interoperability (IAI). A development of e-PlanCheck must comply with Industry Foundation Classes (IFC) standards. It is one of the critical success factors for smoothing the pace of adoption of the system. Another factor is building owner and Computer Aided Design (CAD) users required that all the CAD software must IFC-compliant to tender any projects under the BSA. This to ensure that any software that be used by the construction players able to communicate with e-PlanCheck.

CORENET has developed its own strategy and action

plan to ensure this system well accepted and can be fully used in the real environment. There are five actions in CORENET’s strategy and action plan which are;

a) Conducting seminar to disseminate the capabilities of BIM technology through seminars, forums and discussion among industry and academia.

b) Pilot testing with the industry to identify if there any setback of the system and to gain the feedback from the users to enhance the capability of the system.

c) Collaborating with Institute Higher Learning in order to assist the industry in the use of 3D BIM in their works and conduct research related with BIM technologies and process.

d) Provide the training grants to enhance the knowledge of the works in the use of IFC-BIM based tools.

e) Collaborate with the government bodies and developers to stipulate the requirement of the 3D IFC CAD model in the building contract as mandatory.

[31]. 4.2 BIM Implementation in Hong Kong In Hong Kong Building Information Modelling (BIM) known as Object Oriented Computer-Aided Design (OOCAD) and the government of Hong Kong through one of its agencies Hong Kong Development Bureau realised that, the current Computer-Aided Design (CAD) which is widely used in the construction industry cannot be directly applied into BIM. In order to increase the usage of OOCAD, a working group named The Works Project Information Standard (WPIS) was established under the policy agenda for the 2005 policy. The WPIS working group will be working closely with the other working group which monitoring and controlling the existing CAD software named The CAD Standard for Works Projects (CSWP) working group. One of the tasks for WPIS working group is to come out with any recommendation for the requirements of OOCAD before a new standard to support BIM can be issued [32].

In 2007, discussion between WPIS working group,

CSWP working group, the construction players and the vendors of software realised that in private sector projects, there is a growing trend to utilise the BIM in their projects. During the discussion session, there are few recommendations have been given for the adoption of BIM in Hong Kong, which is;

a) WPIS and the CWSP working group will study and analyse the impacts and barriers when migrate from CAD standard and OOCAD standard and the future trend of BIM software.

b) Come out with a clear road map to indicate the time frame for implementing BIM and provide a strategic plan to assist the industry players in implementing BIM.

[33] The widespread of the BIM in Hong Kong is very fast

after that discussion, and as a result the Hong Kong Institute of Building Information Modelling (HKIBIM) was established in 2009. This effort has come from a group of Hong Kong corporations, stakeholders and experts in BIM application. In general, the objectives of HKIBIM are to promote and create awareness of BIM, to enhance the utilisation of BIM, to develop and establish the standard of BIM practices, conduct a research for improvement and to establish BIM Guideline for Hong Kong [34].

HKIBIM provides a platform to industry players,

including the government of Hong Kong agencies to gather and to discuss on how to improve the implementation of BIM in Hong Kong. HKIBIM viewing that there is a possibility of increasing the usage of BIM in Hong Kong. Therefore, HKIBIM recommends some strategy action for the government to take for regulating the utilisation of BIM solution as followed; a) Develop BIM implementation guidelines that can

assist the construction players in implementing BIM and the same time it could give a clearer picture where BIM in Hong Kong heading to.

b) Pilot testing is one of the strategies, especially for a newcomer who had the intention to implement BIM, and the government should encourage some construction companies that secure any contract to adopt and implement the partial part of BIM components. Incentives can be given to any construction players who implement BIM in their construction projects

c) Seminars, colloquiums, workshops and forum are the platforms that can be used to share the knowledge, experiences, expertise and discussion that can promote and improve the implementation of BIM.

d) Since the implementation of BIM new in Hong Kong, the government of Hong Kong should establish a new department in any agencies that could monitor and evaluate the process of adopting and implement BIM in construction industry.

e) The BIM policy should recommend that the design information be open and made available to other partners so that the design can be easily understood and evaluated [32].

5. Lesson Learnt from Singapore and Hong

Kong

Singapore and Hong Kong seemly enjoyed the strong support from their government to push Building

An Exploratory Study on the Potential of Implementing Building Information Modelling (BIM) in Malaysian Construction Industry: Lesson Learnt from Singapore and Hong Kong Construction Industry

5

Information Modelling (BIM) into their construction industry in terms of policy and contract. Involvements from the private sector also play a significant role in speed up the process of adoption and implementation of BIM in their construction industry. Willingness of Private sector to take part in the pilot project gives a huge significant impact to the pace of implementing BIM, where the feedback from the pilot project will be used as a continuous quality improvement to improve the current practice. Series of awareness was conducted by both countries to disseminate the knowledge of BIM and the same time; it can convey the benefit that can be gained by implementing BIM to the construction players. Involvements from local universities are inevitable to conduct research related with BIM technologies and process. To increase the participants from the industry in implementing BIM incentives are given whether for training purpose to enhance the worker's knowledge or tax reduction. The only different approach between Singapore and Hong Kong is Singapore more toward doing collaboration between government agencies and private sector whereas Hong Kong intended to establish a new role for government agencies to monitor the implementation of BIM. The collaboration between government agencies and private sector in Singapore is to ensure and encourage the private sector to specify the requirement of the Industry Foundation Classes (IFC) 3D model in their contract and for the government project; there are no issues because the requirement of the IFC 3D model is already stated in the contract. Contrary in Hong Kong, the establishment of the department of BIM is more to monitor the implementation of the government’s BIM policy and as entrusted with the task of overseeing BIM initiatives.

Implementation of BIM in Malaysia demands the

involvement from the government, and this can be the driving force towards higher utilisation of BIM in Malaysia. To gain the trust or involvement from the government, forming a BIM working group is one way like Hong Kong, in their early stage adopting BIM. Construction Research Institute of Malaysia (CREAM) under the Construction Industry Development Board (CIDB) can play a significant role to gather all parties in the Malaysian construction industry to discuss the direction of BIM in Malaysia. Collaboration with local universities in research and development can be done through research grants, which are provided by the government such as Exploratory Research Grant (ERGS) or Science Fund. On top of that, collaboration with the local universities will enhance the knowledge of the academia in BIM and the same time the local universities are able to modify their curriculum to meet the demand from the industry by offering the course that can be produced the students who ready with 3D parametric model. Seminars, colloquiums and workshops can be conducted between the industry and the local universities. Incentives can be used to promote the use of BIM, such as tax redemption to accelerate the pace of adoption of BIM. CIDB has implemented this approach for contractors who implement Industrial Building System (IBS) in their construction projects and this

approach also can be used for those who are implementing BIM. 6. Conclusion

Implementation of Building Information Modelling (BIM) in the Malaysian construction industry is not impossible, and it is achievable. Hong Kong and Singapore already showed the possibilities of implementing BIM in their construction industry. Roles of government to be a driven factor of implementation of BIM in Malaysia cannot be denied, but the government cannot be alone in promoting and spreading the importance of implementing BIM. All industry players have to play their own role to ensure the success in implementing BIM in Malaysia. Therefore, in Malaysia, forming BIM working group could be a starting point to spark the pace of adoption and implementation of BIM. This working group can start to; a) Evaluate, study and testing the available BIM

technologies in the markets. b) Identify and choose any construction projects as a

pilot project. c) Documented all the processes from the beginning of

the pilot project. d) Documented the entire lesson learnt from the pilot

project. e) Road Tour to disseminate the lesson learnt gained

from the pilot project. These steps just a kick starts to spark the intention of

the government of Malaysia to instil the concept of innovation in the construction industry. Further research needs to carry out especially to identify the evaluation criteria for selecting the right BIM technologies, criteria for selecting the appropriate pilot project, analyse the worker's knowledge, analyse the suitable project delivery method and analyse and identify the strategic plan that can fit into any organisation who wants to implement BIM. References [1] Kaner, I., Sacks, R., Kassian, W. and Quitt, T.

(2008), “Case studies of BIM adoption for precast concrete design By mid-sized structural engineering firms”; ITcon Vol. 13, 303-323.

[2] Khanzode, A.; Fischer, Martin; and Reed, Dean (2008), “Benefits and Lessons Learned of Implementing Building Virtual Design and Construction (VDC) Technologies for Coordination of Mechanical, Electrical, and Plumbing (MEP) Systems on a Large Healthcare Project”; ITcon Vol. 13, Special Issue Case studies of BIM use , pg. 324-342.

[3] Staub-French, S. and Fischer, M., 2001, “Industrial Case Study of Electronic Design, Cost, and Schedule Integration”; Technical Report #122, Center for Integrated Facility Engineering, Stanford University.

[4] Revit., 2008, White Paper: “The Five Fallacies of BIM”


6

[5] Eastman, C., Teicholz, P., Sacks, R., and Liston, K., 2011, 2nd Edition BIM Handbook: A Guide to Building Information Modelling for Owner, Managers, Designers, Engineers, and Contractors. John Wiley and Sons, Inc. New Jersey

[6] McGraw-Hill Construction, 2008, Building Information Modelling Trends SmartMarket Report, New York.

[7] Taylor, J.E., & Bernstein, P.G. (2008), “Paradigm trajectories of building information modelling practice in project networks”; ASCE Journal of Management in Engineering.

[8] Amine A. Ghanem and Nathaniel Wilson, 2011, “Building Information Modelling Applied on a Major CSU Capital Project: A Success Story”; 47th ASC Annual International Conference Proceedings

[9] CIDB, 2009, “Construction Industry Review 1980-2009 (Q1)”; Construction Industry Development Board Malaysia. Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia

[10] Shari I. (2000), “Economic Growth and Income Inequality in Malaysia”; Journal of Asia Pacific Economy, 5(1/2), pp. 112-124.

[11] Market Watch, 2010, “Malaysian-German Chamber of Commerce – The Construction Sector”.

[12] Murali, S and Soon, Y. W (2007), “Causes and effects of delays in Malaysian construction industry”; International Journal of Project Management, 25 (2007) 517–526.

[13] Intan Rohani Endut, Akintola Akintoye and John Kelly, 2005, “Cost and Time Overrun Projects in Malaysia”; Proceedings of the 2nd Scottish Conference for Postgraduate Researchers of the Built and Natural Environment (PRoBE) 16-17 November 2005, Glasgow Caledonian University

[14] Abdul Rahman, H., Berawi, M.A., Berwai, A.R., Mohamed, O., Othman, M. and Yahya, I.A. (2006), “Delay mitigation in the Malaysian construction industry”; Journal of Construction Engineering and Managemen, Vol. 132 No. 2, pp. 125-33.

[15] Naief, Turki ibn Homaid (2002), “A comparative evaluation of construction and manufacturing material management”; International Journal of Project Management, pp.263–267.

[16] Chan, S. and Park, M. (2005), “Project cost estimation using principal component regression”; Construction Management and Economics, 23, 295-304.

[17] Long, L.H., Young, D.L., & Jun, Y.L..(2008), “Delays and cost overrun in Vietnam large construction projects: A comparison with other selected countries”; KSCE Journal of Civil Engineering, 12, 367 377.

[18] N. Hamzaha, M.A. Khoirya, I. Arshada, N. M. Tawil and A. I. Che Ani, 2011, “Cause of Construction Delay - Theoretical Framework”; The 2nd International Building Control Conference 2011. Procedia Engineering 20 (2011) 490 – 495

[19] Abdul Rahman, H., and Berawi, M. A., 2001, “Developing knowledge management for construction contract management”; Proc., 14th Int.Conf. of Application Prolog-Knowledge Management and Decision Support (SOL), University of Tokyo, 358–378.

[20] Khanzode, A., and Fisher, M., 2000, “Potential savings from standardized electronic information exchange: A case study for the steel structure of a medical office building”; CIFE Technical Report, No 121. Palo Alto, CA: Stanford University.

[21] Azhar, S., Hein, M., and Sketo, B., 2008, “Building Information Modelling (BIM): Benefits, Risks and Challenges”; Proceedings of the 44th ASC Annual Conference, Auburn, Alabama, April 2-5, 2008

[22] Atkin, B. L. (1999), “Refocusing project delivery systems on adding value”; Information Technology in Construction, 4, 803-212.

[23] Smith D.K and Tardiff M., 2009, “Building Information Modelling: A Strategic Implementation Guide for Architects, Engineers, Constructors and Real Estate Asset Managers”; John Wiley & Sons, Inc. New Jersey

[24] Succar, B. (2010), “Building information modelling framework: A research and delivery foundation for industry stakeholders”; Automation in Construction, Volume 18, Issue 3, Pages 357-375.

[25] Steward, R.A. and Mohamed, S., 2003, “Integrated Information Resources: Impediments and Coping Strategies in Construction”; The Australian Centre for Construction Innovation, University of New South Wales, Sydney.

[26] Mui, L. Y., Abdul Aziz, A. R., Ni, A. C., Yee, W. C., and Lay, W. S (2002), “A Survey Of Internet Usage In The Malaysian Construction Industry”; ITcon Vol. 7, 259-269.

[27] Yusuf S. and Osman O., 2008, “An evaluation of the use of Information Technology in the Malaysian construction industry”; Proceeding of ICoPM, University of Malaya, Kuala Lumpur, 710-718.

[28] Wade, M. and J. Hulland, 2004, "the resource-based view and information systems Research: review, extension, and suggestions for future research." MIS Quarterly 28(1): 107-142

[29] http://www.corenet.gov.sg/ [30] Khemlani, L., 2005, “CORENET e-plan check:

Singapore’s automated code checking system”, AECbytes, available at:http://www.aecbytes.com/buildingthefuture/2005/CORENETePlanCheck.html

[31] Teo Ai Lin, Evelyn and Cheng Tai Fatt. (2006), “Building Smart – A Strategy for Implementing BIM Solution in Singapore”; Synthesis Journal Singapore, available at: http://www.itsc.org.sg/pdf/5_BIM.pdf.

[32] Andy K.D. Wong, Francis K.W. Wong and Abid Nadeem, (2011), “Government roles in implementing building information modelling systems: Comparison between Hong Kong and the United States”; Construction Innovation: Information, Process, Management, Vol. 11 Iss: 1 pp. 61 - 76.

[33] DevB, 2007, “Prototype standard of batch no. 2 of works project information standard”; Working Paper No. 1.2, Development Bureau, Government of the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region, November, pp. 22-3.

[34] www.hkibim.org


6

[5] Eastman, C., Teicholz, P., Sacks, R., and Liston, K., 2011, 2nd Edition BIM Handbook: A Guide to Building Information Modelling for Owner, Managers, Designers, Engineers, and Contractors. John Wiley and Sons, Inc. New Jersey

[6] McGraw-Hill Construction, 2008, Building Information Modelling Trends SmartMarket Report, New York.

[7] Taylor, J.E., & Bernstein, P.G. (2008), “Paradigm trajectories of building information modelling practice in project networks”; ASCE Journal of Management in Engineering.

[8] Amine A. Ghanem and Nathaniel Wilson, 2011, “Building Information Modelling Applied on a Major CSU Capital Project: A Success Story”; 47th ASC Annual International Conference Proceedings

[9] CIDB, 2009, “Construction Industry Review 1980-2009 (Q1)”; Construction Industry Development Board Malaysia. Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia

[10] Shari I. (2000), “Economic Growth and Income Inequality in Malaysia”; Journal of Asia Pacific Economy, 5(1/2), pp. 112-124.

[11] Market Watch, 2010, “Malaysian-German Chamber of Commerce – The Construction Sector”.

[12] Murali, S and Soon, Y. W (2007), “Causes and effects of delays in Malaysian construction industry”; International Journal of Project Management, 25 (2007) 517–526.

[13] Intan Rohani Endut, Akintola Akintoye and John Kelly, 2005, “Cost and Time Overrun Projects in Malaysia”; Proceedings of the 2nd Scottish Conference for Postgraduate Researchers of the Built and Natural Environment (PRoBE) 16-17 November 2005, Glasgow Caledonian University

[14] Abdul Rahman, H., Berawi, M.A., Berwai, A.R., Mohamed, O., Othman, M. and Yahya, I.A. (2006), “Delay mitigation in the Malaysian construction industry”; Journal of Construction Engineering and Managemen, Vol. 132 No. 2, pp. 125-33.

[15] Naief, Turki ibn Homaid (2002), “A comparative evaluation of construction and manufacturing material management”; International Journal of Project Management, pp.263–267.

[16] Chan, S. and Park, M. (2005), “Project cost estimation using principal component regression”; Construction Management and Economics, 23, 295-304.

[17] Long, L.H., Young, D.L., & Jun, Y.L..(2008), “Delays and cost overrun in Vietnam large construction projects: A comparison with other selected countries”; KSCE Journal of Civil Engineering, 12, 367 377.

[18] N. Hamzaha, M.A. Khoirya, I. Arshada, N. M. Tawil and A. I. Che Ani, 2011, “Cause of Construction Delay - Theoretical Framework”; The 2nd International Building Control Conference 2011. Procedia Engineering 20 (2011) 490 – 495

[19] Abdul Rahman, H., and Berawi, M. A., 2001, “Developing knowledge management for construction contract management”; Proc., 14th Int.Conf. of Application Prolog-Knowledge Management and Decision Support (SOL), University of Tokyo, 358–378.

[20] Khanzode, A., and Fisher, M., 2000, “Potential savings from standardized electronic information exchange: A case study for the steel structure of a medical office building”; CIFE Technical Report, No 121. Palo Alto, CA: Stanford University.

[21] Azhar, S., Hein, M., and Sketo, B., 2008, “Building Information Modelling (BIM): Benefits, Risks and Challenges”; Proceedings of the 44th ASC Annual Conference, Auburn, Alabama, April 2-5, 2008

[22] Atkin, B. L. (1999), “Refocusing project delivery systems on adding value”; Information Technology in Construction, 4, 803-212.

[23] Smith D.K and Tardiff M., 2009, “Building Information Modelling: A Strategic Implementation Guide for Architects, Engineers, Constructors and Real Estate Asset Managers”; John Wiley & Sons, Inc. New Jersey

[24] Succar, B. (2010), “Building information modelling framework: A research and delivery foundation for industry stakeholders”; Automation in Construction, Volume 18, Issue 3, Pages 357-375.

[25] Steward, R.A. and Mohamed, S., 2003, “Integrated Information Resources: Impediments and Coping Strategies in Construction”; The Australian Centre for Construction Innovation, University of New South Wales, Sydney.

[26] Mui, L. Y., Abdul Aziz, A. R., Ni, A. C., Yee, W. C., and Lay, W. S (2002), “A Survey Of Internet Usage In The Malaysian Construction Industry”; ITcon Vol. 7, 259-269.

[27] Yusuf S. and Osman O., 2008, “An evaluation of the use of Information Technology in the Malaysian construction industry”; Proceeding of ICoPM, University of Malaya, Kuala Lumpur, 710-718.

[28] Wade, M. and J. Hulland, 2004, "the resource-based view and information systems Research: review, extension, and suggestions for future research." MIS Quarterly 28(1): 107-142

[29] http://www.corenet.gov.sg/ [30] Khemlani, L., 2005, “CORENET e-plan check:

Singapore’s automated code checking system”, AECbytes, available at:http://www.aecbytes.com/buildingthefuture/2005/CORENETePlanCheck.html

[31] Teo Ai Lin, Evelyn and Cheng Tai Fatt. (2006), “Building Smart – A Strategy for Implementing BIM Solution in Singapore”; Synthesis Journal Singapore, available at: http://www.itsc.org.sg/pdf/5_BIM.pdf.

[32] Andy K.D. Wong, Francis K.W. Wong and Abid Nadeem, (2011), “Government roles in implementing building information modelling systems: Comparison between Hong Kong and the United States”; Construction Innovation: Information, Process, Management, Vol. 11 Iss: 1 pp. 61 - 76.

[33] DevB, 2007, “Prototype standard of batch no. 2 of works project information standard”; Working Paper No. 1.2, Development Bureau, Government of the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region, November, pp. 22-3.

[34] www.hkibim.org

______________ *Corresponding author

Derivation Of A Reliable And Consistent Volume Delay Functions For Town Road Network Based On Users Feedback Adnan Zulkiple*, Sharifah Awang Faculty of Civil Engineering & Earth Resources,University Malaysia Pahang, Malaysia ________________________________________________________________________________

____________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ______________________ ___________________________________________________________________

1. Introduction There are various types of Volume Delay Function (VDF) models such as US Bureau of Public Road (BPR) function, Indonesian Highway Capacity Manual (MKJI) VDF, Spiess’s Conical VDF and other VDF models can be used in running the trip assignment but the compatibility with the study area is important in getting the result that close to the actual condition.

Different towns have a different type of road

network and traffic pattern, that's why modeler must choose the right VDF model to be used. Indonesian case for example Irawan, Sumi&Munawar (2020) had shown that the Indonesian Highway Capacity Manual (MKJI) VDF is more suitable with Yogyakarta’s traffic condition instead of the BPR VDF. Meanwhile a study by Davis &Xiong (2007) on comparative analysis of the BPR function, Singapore Model, Conical VDF, Skabardonis-Dowling model and Highway Capacity Manual (HCM) formula found that the Skabardonis-Dowling model is most compatible for the Minneapolis’s road network.

Due to the compatibility issue that mentions above,

this paper will suggest the methodology that can be used

in deriving the most suitable VDF for Malaysia road network (in this case study, Kuantan Town). Note that, Kuantanas shown below is the State Capital of Pahang and the 9th largest town in Malaysia with population in 2010 of 461,906 (Wikipedia2012).

(a) Larger Kuantan Town

Keywords: Volume delay function Road network Trip matrices modeling Trip assignment


Geo-Environmental

Journal homepage:http://ijceg.ump.edu.my ISSN:21802742

A B S T R A C T ARTICLEINFO

Volume delay function (VDF) of a road network is one of the key elements when running trip assignment in traffic modeling exercises. Often the modeler opts to adjust the tedious road network and trip matrices models while keeping the VDF constant although the later was merely adopted from prevailing database without making effort to review its validity. Adjusting the VDF is time consuming and a modeler really has to be familiar with the study area road network and experience driving on every road during peak and off peak hours. Furthermore the results are still subjected to variations due to time and day difference even for a team of well- trained numerators. As such there seem to be an opportunity to get simultaneous responds say during AM peak hours from a comprehensive users’ feedback survey. This paper presents the methodology on deriving VDF for a town road network based on users’ feedback and compare the validity of the study approach with various VDF models such as Spiess’s conical volume function, Singapore model, the Indonesian Highway Capacity Manual (MKJI) volume delay function and the well-known US Bureau of Public Road (BPR) function.


8

(b) Kuantan Town Centre

Figure 1: Kuantan road network

2. Literature review The following section will describe and compare where applicable the four leading VDF models namely the Indonesian Highway Capacity Manual (MKJI) volume delay function, Singapore model, Spiess’s Conical VDF and BPR function. 2.1. Indonesia Highway Capacity Manual (MKJI)

VDF Irawan, Sumi and Munawar(2010) in their studyconcluded that MKJI VDF is closer to actual condition as compared to BPR function since MKJI VDF considers the local road network time of delay, road characteristic and its free flow speed while BPR function ignore the time of delay and assume uniform road type. Procedure used in the study to determine the most suitable VDF function for Yogyakarta is illustrated in Figure 2.

Figure 2: Procedure used to determine the most suitable VDF for Yogyakarta, Indonesia (Irawan, Sumi, &Munawar, 2010)

Irawan, Sumi and Munawar also generated the VDF function as shown below (Equation 1) in which T: travel time in minutes as the independent variable withv: traffic volume in pcuh, c: practical capacity in pcuh, s: free flow speed in kmh, L: the road length in km and n: number of lane as the dependent variables.

(1)

Where α1,α2 and β are the parameters The practical capacity formula, c is derived in equation 2 below.

(2) Where,

C0 : free flow capacity in pcuh, FCW : link width capacity factor, FCSP : link separated capacity factor, FCSF : side friction capacity factor, and FCS : city size factor.

The free flow speed formula, s is derived in equation 3 below.

(3) Where,

S0 = basic free flow speed in kmh, FSW = effective width factor, FSSF = side friction factor, and FCS = city size factor.

2.2. Singapore Model Xie, Cheu& Lee (2001) separated the link travel time into two categories: the cruise time and the signal delay. Loop detectors are used to calculate the cruise time while the Webster formula is used to calculate the signal delay. They run the Singapore model with INTEGRATION Version 2.0 in order to get the average moving speed of vehicles on a link. Equations 4, 5 and 6 illustrates the Singapore model.

(4)

(5)

(6) Where,

TT = Predicted mean travel time, FFS = Free Flow Speed, S = Cycle length in seconds

= Effective green proportion (g/C), x = Volume/capacity ratio (0 ≤ x <1), and q = arrival rate (veh/second).

2.3. BPR Function This function was developed by US Bereau of Public Road (BPR) and it is commonly used in traffic assignment. The BPR function equation can be defined as:

(7)

where, T : travel time in minutes, T0:free flow travel time in minutes, v : traffic volume in pcuh,


8

(b) Kuantan Town Centre

Figure 1: Kuantan road network

2. Literature review The following section will describe and compare where applicable the four leading VDF models namely the Indonesian Highway Capacity Manual (MKJI) volume delay function, Singapore model, Spiess’s Conical VDF and BPR function. 2.1. Indonesia Highway Capacity Manual (MKJI)

VDF Irawan, Sumi and Munawar(2010) in their studyconcluded that MKJI VDF is closer to actual condition as compared to BPR function since MKJI VDF considers the local road network time of delay, road characteristic and its free flow speed while BPR function ignore the time of delay and assume uniform road type. Procedure used in the study to determine the most suitable VDF function for Yogyakarta is illustrated in Figure 2.

Figure 2: Procedure used to determine the most suitable VDF for Yogyakarta, Indonesia (Irawan, Sumi, &Munawar, 2010)

Irawan, Sumi and Munawar also generated the VDF function as shown below (Equation 1) in which T: travel time in minutes as the independent variable withv: traffic volume in pcuh, c: practical capacity in pcuh, s: free flow speed in kmh, L: the road length in km and n: number of lane as the dependent variables.

(1)

Where α1,α2 and β are the parameters The practical capacity formula, c is derived in equation 2 below.

(2) Where,

C0 : free flow capacity in pcuh, FCW : link width capacity factor, FCSP : link separated capacity factor, FCSF : side friction capacity factor, and FCS : city size factor.

The free flow speed formula, s is derived in equation 3 below.

(3) Where,

S0 = basic free flow speed in kmh, FSW = effective width factor, FSSF = side friction factor, and FCS = city size factor.

2.2. Singapore Model Xie, Cheu& Lee (2001) separated the link travel time into two categories: the cruise time and the signal delay. Loop detectors are used to calculate the cruise time while the Webster formula is used to calculate the signal delay. They run the Singapore model with INTEGRATION Version 2.0 in order to get the average moving speed of vehicles on a link. Equations 4, 5 and 6 illustrates the Singapore model.

(4)

(5)

(6) Where,

TT = Predicted mean travel time, FFS = Free Flow Speed, S = Cycle length in seconds

= Effective green proportion (g/C), x = Volume/capacity ratio (0 ≤ x <1), and q = arrival rate (veh/second).

2.3. BPR Function This function was developed by US Bereau of Public Road (BPR) and it is commonly used in traffic assignment. The BPR function equation can be defined as:

(7)

where, T : travel time in minutes, T0:free flow travel time in minutes, v : traffic volume in pcuh,

Derivation Of A Reliable And Consistent Volume Delay Functions For Town Road Network Based On Users Feedback

9

c : practical capacity in pcuh, and α and β are the parameters

2.4. Spiess’sConical Volume Function Meanwhile, Spiess’s conical volume function improved the BPR function and the equation can be expressed as shown below (Spiess, 1990).

(8)

Where, TT : predicted mean travel time in minutes, FFT : free-flow travel time in minutes, v : volume in pcuh, c :capacity (possibly adjusted by green time/cycle

length ratio), α : positive number greater than 1, and

2.5 Malaysia VDF Models To date, the best Malaysia VDF models is perhaps the one developed for the Highway Development Plan Study (HNDP, 2010) by PerundingAturSdn Bhd. However, the model is consistent for rural and interurban road and highway only. For urban urban road and highway a study entitled Malaysia Urban Transport Plan (MUTP, 1995) is probably the best developed for Johor Bahru, Ipoh and Sungai Petani that represent all three sizes of city and town in Malaysia. Since then, model for traffic study had been adopting and adjusted according to local traffic condition such as the traffic model developed for Putra LRT, 1997. The adjustment to local conditions for VDF has been the practice by traffic consultants in the country based on HNDP and MUTP models until now. In some cases however, the model required adjustment beyond the acceptable limits and this trigger necessity for development new VDF base model particularly with the application of the Malaysia Highway Capacity Manual (MHCM, 2006). 3. Research methodology

The method use in this study as shown in Figure 3 is basically developed from MHCMand relevant functions from HNDP and MUTPmodels.Based on MHCM, the ideal saturation flow rate for Malaysia road condition is 1930 pcu/h/ln and this value is relatively higherthan the value used in previous models (1800pcu/h/ln in HNDP and MUTP) in Table 1 and slight higher (at 2196 pcu/hr/ln) than that of MKJI.

Figure 3: The proposed flowchart for derivation of Kuantan Town VDF Table 1: Values for speed and capacity by road categories use in EMME3 (PerundingAturSdn. Bhd, 2006 and MUTP, 1995)

VDF Function

Road Category

Link Type No

Speed (kmh)

Capacity (pcuh/ln)

fd1 Arterial 1 100 1800 fd2 Distributor 2 80 1500 fd3 Collector 3 60 1020 fd4 Local Road 4 40 750

fd5 Centroid Connector 99 NA NA

We are going to use EMME3 traffic modeling

software to create the road network and run the trip assignment as per Figure 4.

Figure 4:The EMME3 core modeling framework (Inro, 2012)

All four VDF models described in Section 2 are going to betested using local values for speed and capacity as per Table 1. The novelty of the study is that it employs user feedbacks to provide travel time information for critical links instead of the usually presumed travel time derived from the travel time calculation; t in hour = length in km per travel speed in kmh. The best model that suit the acceptance criteria will be recommended to be adopted as Kuantan Town VDF.

Zonning for the study area has been established at two levels: larger Kuantan Town and Town Centre levels as below. Both levels comprises of 21 internal and 9 external zones with a total of 558 links.


10

(a) Larger Town Level

(b) Town Centre Level

Figure 5: Kuantan Road Network and Zoning System Validation for the trip assignment is based on the trial and error basis that compare the modeled and the counted traffic volume at strategic links as shown in Table 2.

Table 2: Trip assignment validation

Node Link Name Volume (vph) % Diff From To Modelled Counted

100 110 JalanMahkota 200 210 JalanIndera

The whole model is assumed to be validated once the difference between the modeled and the counted traffic volume at all stations converges to be less than or equal 5%. The whole modeling process might take a few more steps before we can comfortably say that the based year traffic model for Kuantan Town has been successfully established with a reliable and consistent VDF. 4. Initial Findings

A number of studies had been conducted using questionnaire surveys as to get feedbacks on the perceived level and the main cause of congestion for KuantanTown. In the first phase of the study, 55 respondents consisting of Kuantan Municipal Council (MPK) Senior Staff, Public Work Department (JKR) Director, Deputy Director and Engineers, Kuantan Senior

Traffic Police Officers, Hospital TengkuAmpuanAfzan (HTAA) Staff and traders in Kuantan town. The second phase of the study comprise 276 respondents from all strata of the public including the bus passengers and the taxi drivers. The study found that the major cause of traffic congestion in Kuantan town is due to delay at signalized junctions and limited parking space available at the town centre.

Zonning for the study area was also established at

two levels: Kuantan Town and Town Centre levels as below. Both levels comprises of 21 internal and 9 external zones with a total of 558 links.

(c) Larger Town Level

(d) Town Centre Level

Figure 5: Kuantan Road Network and Zoning System

5. Conclusions

The current paper explains the proposed study to derive a reliable and consistent volume delay function (VDF) for town road network based on users feedback with Kuantan Town as the study case. Since every town has a unique traffic model, this study will help engineers and planners to produce better traffic data for a medium size town in Malaysia.


10

(a) Larger Town Level

(b) Town Centre Level

Figure 5: Kuantan Road Network and Zoning System Validation for the trip assignment is based on the trial and error basis that compare the modeled and the counted traffic volume at strategic links as shown in Table 2.

Table 2: Trip assignment validation

Node Link Name Volume (vph) % Diff From To Modelled Counted

100 110 JalanMahkota 200 210 JalanIndera

The whole model is assumed to be validated once the difference between the modeled and the counted traffic volume at all stations converges to be less than or equal 5%. The whole modeling process might take a few more steps before we can comfortably say that the based year traffic model for Kuantan Town has been successfully established with a reliable and consistent VDF. 4. Initial Findings

A number of studies had been conducted using questionnaire surveys as to get feedbacks on the perceived level and the main cause of congestion for KuantanTown. In the first phase of the study, 55 respondents consisting of Kuantan Municipal Council (MPK) Senior Staff, Public Work Department (JKR) Director, Deputy Director and Engineers, Kuantan Senior

Traffic Police Officers, Hospital TengkuAmpuanAfzan (HTAA) Staff and traders in Kuantan town. The second phase of the study comprise 276 respondents from all strata of the public including the bus passengers and the taxi drivers. The study found that the major cause of traffic congestion in Kuantan town is due to delay at signalized junctions and limited parking space available at the town centre.

Zonning for the study area was also established at

two levels: Kuantan Town and Town Centre levels as below. Both levels comprises of 21 internal and 9 external zones with a total of 558 links.

(c) Larger Town Level

(d) Town Centre Level

Figure 5: Kuantan Road Network and Zoning System

5. Conclusions

The current paper explains the proposed study to derive a reliable and consistent volume delay function (VDF) for town road network based on users feedback with Kuantan Town as the study case. Since every town has a unique traffic model, this study will help engineers and planners to produce better traffic data for a medium size town in Malaysia.

Derivation Of A Reliable And Consistent Volume Delay Functions For Town Road Network Based On Users Feedback

11

References Davis, G. A., &Xiong, H. (2007).Access to destinations:

Travel time estimation on arterials. Minneapolis, MN.

Highway Planning Unit, H. (1996). Malaysia Highway Capacity Manual, Ministry of Works, Malaysia

HNDP, 2010. Highway Network Plan Study, Highway Planning Unit, Ministry of Works, Malaysia

Inro. (2012). Retrieved August 7, 2012, from Inro software website: http://www.inrosoftware.com/ en/products/ emme/modelling.php

Irawan, M. Z., Sumi, T., &Munawar, A. (2010).Implementation of 1997 Indonesian Highway Capacity Manual (MKJI) Volume Delay Function.Journal of the Eastern Asia Society for Transportation Studies, Vol 8, 2012.

PerundingAturSdn.Bhd. (2006).EMME/2 Auto Assigment Module (Tutorial).

MHCM, 2005.Highway Capacity Manual, Malaysia, Highway Planning Unit, Ministry of Works, Malaysia.

MUTP, 1995.Malaysia Urban Tranport Planning, Highway Planning Unit, Ministry of Works, Malaysia.

Spiess, H. (1990). Conical Volume-Delay functions. Transportation Science, Vol 24, No. 2.

Wikipedia2012. (n.d.).Wikipedia. Retrieved July 19, 2012, from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuantan

Xie, C., Cheu, R. L., & Lee, D.-H.(2001). Calibration-free arterial link speed estimation model using loop data.Journal of Transportation Engineering.

Application of GIS for Detecting Changes of Land Use and Land Cover in Tasik Chini Watershed, Pahang, Malaysia

1

Application of GIS for Detecting Changes of Land Use and Land Cover in Tasik Chini Watershed, Pahang, Malaysia Sujaul Islam Mir1*, B.S. Ismail2, Muhammad Barzani Gasim2, Mohd Ekhwan Toriman3, Sahibin Abd. Rahim2, Zularisam Ab Wahid1 1 Faculty of Civil Engineering & Earth Resources, Universiti Malaysia Pahang, Malaysia 2School of environment and Natural Resource Sciences, FST, Kebangsaan Malaysia 3School of Social Development and Environmental Studies, FSSK, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia ________________________________________________________________________________

____________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ____________________ ___________________________________________________________________

1. Introduction Land-use and land-cover changes play a vital role in environmental and ecological biodiversity and furthermore contribute to global change (Lambin et al. 2001; Meyer & Turner 1991). Changes in Land-use and land-cover have direct impact on the biological diversity (Sala et al. 2000) and contribute to local and regional climatic change including global warming (Chase et al. 1999; Houghton et al. 1999). They may cause land degradation by altering the ecosystem and livelihood support systems, thereby disrupting the sociocultural practices and institutions associated with managing those biophysical systems (Vitousek et al. 1997). Such changes also affect the vulnerability of people and places to climatic, economic, or sociopolitical perturbations (Kasperson et al. 1995). In Malaysia, the Land Acquisition Act of 1960 allows all state governments to acquire land for economic purposes. Thus under such a law, extensive land areas in the states which include forests are being changed for commercial land use. A total of 5.22 million hectares of

land in Malaysia were opened for development by 1990, compared to 3.4 million hectares in 1966. However, since 1991 there has been a growing competition for the acquisition of prime land among various sectors namely agriculture, urban development and settlement, industries, recreation and forestry. There has been extensive environmental damage and long-term impact of such conversion and abuse (LUCC SEA 2003). Malaysia is a tropical country that has been experiencing extensive land use change associated with government developmental policies. In the 1960s and 1970s, Malaysian economic development was mainly focused on the agricultural sector. During this time, most of the forested areas were converted into agricultural land, mainly for oil palm and rubber plantations (Abdullah & Nakagoshi 2007). In the 1980s, there was a major economic transformation focusing on the manufacturing sector. By 1987, this sector became the fastest growing area and its growth rate exceeded the agricultural sector and

Keywords: GIS, Land use change, Watershed, Tasik Chini, Pollution


Geo-Environmental



The Geographical Information Systems (GIS) was used to detect the temporal and spatial land use changes during the periods 1984, 1990, 2000 and 2002 at the Tasik Chini Watershed. The GIS has the capability of associating information with particular features on a map and creating new relationships that can determine the suitability of various sites for development, evaluating the environmental impact and identifying the best location for the new facilities. The boundary of the study area and four land use maps was digitized. There were only three types of land use in 1984; however this dramatically changed into seven categories in 2002. The three initial types of land use were water bodies, forests and oil palm plantations. The forest area decreased by 861.70 ha in 2002 and forests constituted 75.72% of the study area. The forest areas were converted into six categories of land use. These six categories increased by 740.68 ha in 2002 and covered 15.60% of the total area. The water bodies increased by 240.32 ha and covered 8.68% of the study area. The construction of the weir downstream of the Chini River in 1995 has increased the water bodies in the study area. The ecological, biological and hydrological functions of the lake system have been significantly affected during the past 18 years. The unsystematic and rapid urbanization that occurred in the study area not only caused the loss of important forest and wetlands, but also contributed to water and soil pollution problems.


14

accounted for 22.6% of the country’s gross domestic product (Economic Planning Unit Malaysia 2004). The progress of this sector has been catalysing other developmental activities, such as urbanization, highway construction, commercial growth and development of other infrastructure. As a result there has been an increased demand for land, which involved the removal of permanent forest reserves and state forests. All of these changes have been identified as major causes of environmental degradation (Abdullah & Nakagoshi 2006). Recent development in the Tasik Chini watershed has led to rapid changes in land use. The diversification and intensification of socio-economic development in the Tasik Chini watershed over the last twenty years has increased the vulnerability of the population to environmental degradation. From the years 1984-2002, the Tasik Chini watershed was used for rubber and oil palm plantations, settlements and intensive agricultural activities such as the production of diversified crops and the growing of citrus-fruits, vegetables and paddy. This unsustainable land use patterns within and around the watershed have resulted in the erosion and sedimentation of the basin over the years, thereby depleting the lake of its original fauna and flora biodiversity. This paper discusses land use and land cover changes in the Tasik Chini watershed from 1984 to 2002. Identification of the type, total study area, land use and land cover changes were carried out using the GIS interface. 2. Study Area Tasik Chini is located in the southeastern region of the state of Pahang, Malaysia. It is located approximately 100 km from Kuantan, the capital of Pahang. The lake system lies between 3°22΄30˝ to 3°28΄00˝N and 102° 52΄40˝ to 102°58΄10˝E and comprises 12 open water bodies called “laut” by the local people and linked to the Pahang River by the Chini River. The total study area is 5820.52 ha. A few communities of the indigenous Jakun tribe live around the lake. Tasik Chini is the second largest natural fresh-water lake in Malaysia covering 202 hectares of open water and 700 ha of Riparian, Peat, Mountain and Lowland Dipterocarp forest (Wetlands International Asia Pacific 1998). Tasik Chini is surrounded by variously vegetated low hills and undulating land which constitute the watershed for the region. There are three hilly areas surrounding the lake: (1) Bt. Ketaya (209m) located southeast; (2) Bt. Tebakang (210m) at the north and (3) Bt. Chini (641m) located southwest. The Tasik Chini watershed is representative of the upstream site of the Pahang River in Pekan. The area has a humid tropical climate with two monsoon periods, characterized by the following bimodal pattern: southwest and northeast monsoons bring rainfall which varies from 1488 to 3071mm annually. The mean annual rainfall is 2,500 mm and the temperature range is from 21°C to 32°C. Potential evapotranspiration (PE) is between 500 to 1000 mm. However, the open water area has expanded since 1995, due to increased retention of water after the construction of a barrage at the Chini

River. The lake drains northeasterly into the Pahang River via the Chini River, which meanders for 4.8 km before it reaches the Pahang River. 3. Materials and Methods

Changes in land use patterns at Tasik Chini were assessed using four land use maps. The topographical map, with the scale of 1:50000 was used to assess the span of the watershed of Tasik Chini. On the basis of contour the boundary of the study area was digitized. The GIS extrapolation analyses were used to quantify changes in land use of the study area. The topographical map was first rectified to provide baseline estimation of Tasik Chini. Changes of line and polygon were detected by superimposing the maps of segment and raster. This technique provided the distortion of the base map and overlay maps (Mohd Ekhwan 2003). Digital scanning plus tablet and on-screen digitizing techniques were applied to all the maps. The procedure is summarized in three stages: Stage one: Scanning and downloading of images. The 1992 Topographic and land use maps of 1984, 1990, 2000 and 2002 were scanned using a Digital Scanner and saved in a *jpg file. All digitized maps which were already available for analysis, were saved as vector data into CorelDraw12. In the process of integrating them into the GIS database, all the scanned images were registered and imported into the GIS-ILWIS map projection. The registration process was important for interfacing with the location and orientation of the stored maps and images. Stage two: Manipulating the database. On the digitizing tablet all the land use maps for the different years were digitized using the GIS -ILWIS (Version. 3.3). Initially the metric coordinate systems of all the maps were set up. According to the ILWIS concept, first the segment maps then the point maps after which the polygon maps and finally the raster maps were created. In the present study, the final scale was set up at 1: 13772 so that all the four maps could be analyzed using a similar scale. Stage three: Analyzing the databases. By taking into account the rectification procedure, the base map (Scanned Map) and the overlay map (Digitized Map) were assumed to have a RMSE (Root Mean Square Error) as zero, taking into consideration that all the aspects of distortion had been minimized (Mohd Ekhwan et al. 2006). Finally the attribute maps were created to get additional information on various elements in a map. 4. Results and Discussion 4.1 Land use and land cover in the study area

In this study, the land use and land cover changes occurring from 1984 to 2002 in the Tasik Chini watershed were investigated and it was found that oil palm, rubber, mining, agriculture, water and settlement areas had increased, whereas forests had decreased. The spatial distribution of land use and land cover changes of the forest at different time periods including the temporal difference between them, are shown in Figure 1.


14

accounted for 22.6% of the country’s gross domestic product (Economic Planning Unit Malaysia 2004). The progress of this sector has been catalysing other developmental activities, such as urbanization, highway construction, commercial growth and development of other infrastructure. As a result there has been an increased demand for land, which involved the removal of permanent forest reserves and state forests. All of these changes have been identified as major causes of environmental degradation (Abdullah & Nakagoshi 2006). Recent development in the Tasik Chini watershed has led to rapid changes in land use. The diversification and intensification of socio-economic development in the Tasik Chini watershed over the last twenty years has increased the vulnerability of the population to environmental degradation. From the years 1984-2002, the Tasik Chini watershed was used for rubber and oil palm plantations, settlements and intensive agricultural activities such as the production of diversified crops and the growing of citrus-fruits, vegetables and paddy. This unsustainable land use patterns within and around the watershed have resulted in the erosion and sedimentation of the basin over the years, thereby depleting the lake of its original fauna and flora biodiversity. This paper discusses land use and land cover changes in the Tasik Chini watershed from 1984 to 2002. Identification of the type, total study area, land use and land cover changes were carried out using the GIS interface. 2. Study Area Tasik Chini is located in the southeastern region of the state of Pahang, Malaysia. It is located approximately 100 km from Kuantan, the capital of Pahang. The lake system lies between 3°22΄30˝ to 3°28΄00˝N and 102° 52΄40˝ to 102°58΄10˝E and comprises 12 open water bodies called “laut” by the local people and linked to the Pahang River by the Chini River. The total study area is 5820.52 ha. A few communities of the indigenous Jakun tribe live around the lake. Tasik Chini is the second largest natural fresh-water lake in Malaysia covering 202 hectares of open water and 700 ha of Riparian, Peat, Mountain and Lowland Dipterocarp forest (Wetlands International Asia Pacific 1998). Tasik Chini is surrounded by variously vegetated low hills and undulating land which constitute the watershed for the region. There are three hilly areas surrounding the lake: (1) Bt. Ketaya (209m) located southeast; (2) Bt. Tebakang (210m) at the north and (3) Bt. Chini (641m) located southwest. The Tasik Chini watershed is representative of the upstream site of the Pahang River in Pekan. The area has a humid tropical climate with two monsoon periods, characterized by the following bimodal pattern: southwest and northeast monsoons bring rainfall which varies from 1488 to 3071mm annually. The mean annual rainfall is 2,500 mm and the temperature range is from 21°C to 32°C. Potential evapotranspiration (PE) is between 500 to 1000 mm. However, the open water area has expanded since 1995, due to increased retention of water after the construction of a barrage at the Chini

River. The lake drains northeasterly into the Pahang River via the Chini River, which meanders for 4.8 km before it reaches the Pahang River. 3. Materials and Methods

Changes in land use patterns at Tasik Chini were assessed using four land use maps. The topographical map, with the scale of 1:50000 was used to assess the span of the watershed of Tasik Chini. On the basis of contour the boundary of the study area was digitized. The GIS extrapolation analyses were used to quantify changes in land use of the study area. The topographical map was first rectified to provide baseline estimation of Tasik Chini. Changes of line and polygon were detected by superimposing the maps of segment and raster. This technique provided the distortion of the base map and overlay maps (Mohd Ekhwan 2003). Digital scanning plus tablet and on-screen digitizing techniques were applied to all the maps. The procedure is summarized in three stages: Stage one: Scanning and downloading of images. The 1992 Topographic and land use maps of 1984, 1990, 2000 and 2002 were scanned using a Digital Scanner and saved in a *jpg file. All digitized maps which were already available for analysis, were saved as vector data into CorelDraw12. In the process of integrating them into the GIS database, all the scanned images were registered and imported into the GIS-ILWIS map projection. The registration process was important for interfacing with the location and orientation of the stored maps and images. Stage two: Manipulating the database. On the digitizing tablet all the land use maps for the different years were digitized using the GIS -ILWIS (Version. 3.3). Initially the metric coordinate systems of all the maps were set up. According to the ILWIS concept, first the segment maps then the point maps after which the polygon maps and finally the raster maps were created. In the present study, the final scale was set up at 1: 13772 so that all the four maps could be analyzed using a similar scale. Stage three: Analyzing the databases. By taking into account the rectification procedure, the base map (Scanned Map) and the overlay map (Digitized Map) were assumed to have a RMSE (Root Mean Square Error) as zero, taking into consideration that all the aspects of distortion had been minimized (Mohd Ekhwan et al. 2006). Finally the attribute maps were created to get additional information on various elements in a map. 4. Results and Discussion 4.1 Land use and land cover in the study area

In this study, the land use and land cover changes occurring from 1984 to 2002 in the Tasik Chini watershed were investigated and it was found that oil palm, rubber, mining, agriculture, water and settlement areas had increased, whereas forests had decreased. The spatial distribution of land use and land cover changes of the forest at different time periods including the temporal difference between them, are shown in Figure 1.


15

Figure 1: Land use and types of land cover of the study area in 1984 (a), 1990 (b), 2000 (c) and 2002 (d)

4.2 Trend, Rate and Magnitude of Land Use and Land Cover Changes (1984-2002)

The maps show types of land use and land cover prepared with the land use maps from the years 1984, 1990, 2000 and 2002. The main types of land use and land cover contributed to the following; diversified crops, forests, mining areas, mixed horticulture, oil palm, orchard/shifting cultivation, orchards, paddy, rubber, scrub, scrub grassland, shifting cultivation, shifting cultivation/orchards, shifting cultivation/scrub, swamp, settlement areas and water. On the basis of land use and

land cover, classification was categorized into seven major types, which were forests, oil palm, water, rubber, mining, agriculture and settlement areas. When compared after the changes in land use and land cover from 1984 to 2002, it was seen that the areas under oil palm increased from 286.76 ha to 577.44 ha, rubber areas from 0.00 to 117.20 ha, agricultural areas from 0.00 to 165.18 ha, mining areas from 0.00 to 38.48 ha, settlement areas from 0.00 ha to 9.84 ha and water bodies from 264.60 ha to 504.92 ha. Forested areas decreased from 5269.16 ha to 4407.46 ha. Changes of land use and land cover for 1984, 1990, 2002 and 2002 are displayed in Table 1.


16

Table 1: Total area and changes in types of land use and land cover from 1984 to 2002

Land Use and Land

Cover Year Area (%)

Type (ha) 1984 1990 2000 2002 1984 1990 2000 2002

Forest 5269.16 4929.36 4604.36 4407.46 90.53 84.69 79.11 75.72

Oil Palm 286.76 370.80 371.48 577.44 4.93 6.37 6.38 9.92

Water 264.60 256.96 504.96 504.92 4.54 4.41 8.68 8.68

Rubber 0.00 121.76 127.40 117.20 0.00 2.09 2.19 2.01

Mining 0.00 50.40 40.76 38.48 0.00 0.87 0.70 0.66

Agriculture 0.00 91.24 165.12 165.18 0.00 1.57 2.84 2.84

Settlement 0.00 0.00 6.44 9.84 0.00 0.00 0.11 0.17

Total 5820.52 5820.52 5820.52 5820.52 100 100 100 100

4.3 Changes in Forest Area

Deforestation rates in developing countries such as Malaysia during the 20th century were considered to be among the highest in the world (Wood & Baldwin 1985; Meyer & Turner 1992; Sehgal & Abrol 1992; Negi et al. 1997; Wakeel et al. 2005). Before 1984, agricultural practice around the study area was low because this type of land use brought in low income for the local people. But later when oil palm, which generates more income, was introduced, it became widespread. However, because of tourism and mining activities, there was rapid migration from neighbouring areas to this area and the population increase led to a rapid decrease in forest areas. Verburg and Chen (2000) realized that land use and land cover changes were particularly related to the increase in

population and intensive agriculture. When the changes in land use and land cover from the years 1990 and 2000 were examined, the spatial sizes of agricultural and settlement areas were determined digitally. The reason for this increase was the rise in rapid and unsystematic settlement, together with the spread of shifting cultivation in order to obtain higher income from areas previously occupied by forests. Because of economic reasons, forest areas were converted into oil palm and rubber plantations, which generated more income per unit area and had the potential of production throughout the year. Mining activities, tourism, settlements and agricultural expansion activities carried out have drastically reduced the area of forests in the study area after 1984 (Figure 2).


16

Table 1: Total area and changes in types of land use and land cover from 1984 to 2002

Land Use and Land

Cover Year Area (%)

Type (ha) 1984 1990 2000 2002 1984 1990 2000 2002

Forest 5269.16 4929.36 4604.36 4407.46 90.53 84.69 79.11 75.72

Oil Palm 286.76 370.80 371.48 577.44 4.93 6.37 6.38 9.92

Water 264.60 256.96 504.96 504.92 4.54 4.41 8.68 8.68

Rubber 0.00 121.76 127.40 117.20 0.00 2.09 2.19 2.01

Mining 0.00 50.40 40.76 38.48 0.00 0.87 0.70 0.66

Agriculture 0.00 91.24 165.12 165.18 0.00 1.57 2.84 2.84

Settlement 0.00 0.00 6.44 9.84 0.00 0.00 0.11 0.17

Total 5820.52 5820.52 5820.52 5820.52 100 100 100 100

4.3 Changes in Forest Area

Deforestation rates in developing countries such as Malaysia during the 20th century were considered to be among the highest in the world (Wood & Baldwin 1985; Meyer & Turner 1992; Sehgal & Abrol 1992; Negi et al. 1997; Wakeel et al. 2005). Before 1984, agricultural practice around the study area was low because this type of land use brought in low income for the local people. But later when oil palm, which generates more income, was introduced, it became widespread. However, because of tourism and mining activities, there was rapid migration from neighbouring areas to this area and the population increase led to a rapid decrease in forest areas. Verburg and Chen (2000) realized that land use and land cover changes were particularly related to the increase in

population and intensive agriculture. When the changes in land use and land cover from the years 1990 and 2000 were examined, the spatial sizes of agricultural and settlement areas were determined digitally. The reason for this increase was the rise in rapid and unsystematic settlement, together with the spread of shifting cultivation in order to obtain higher income from areas previously occupied by forests. Because of economic reasons, forest areas were converted into oil palm and rubber plantations, which generated more income per unit area and had the potential of production throughout the year. Mining activities, tourism, settlements and agricultural expansion activities carried out have drastically reduced the area of forests in the study area after 1984 (Figure 2).


17

Figure 2: Changes in forest, oil palm, water bodies, rubber, mining, settlements and agricultural

areas in the Tasik Chini watershed from 1984 to 2002 The results of the transition in Table 2 indicate the areas that increased or decreased between 1984 and 2002 for each land use type. In the past decade, the forest areas decreased by 861.70 ha or 14.81% of the study area. Between 1984 and 2002, the decrease was about 290.68 ha or 4.99%, 117.20 ha or 2.02% and 38.48 ha 0.66% for grassland and forests transformed into oil palm, rubber and mining areas respectively. In addition, there were 240.32 ha or 4.13% of swamp and wetlands converted into water bodies. According to the land use and land cover maps 165.18 ha or 2.84% of forest areas were converted into agricultural land. There were no settlement areas in 1984 but 9.84 ha or 0.17% of settlement areas were present in the study area in 2002. This meant that 9.84 ha or 0.17% of forest areas were converted into settlement areas. The most notable change

of land use and land cover in the Tasik Chini watershed was the decline in forest areas and the increase of areas under oil palm, rubber, water bodes, mining, agriculture and settlement activities (Table 2). Wong (1974) determined that most of the natural forests in Malaysia from the 1950s to the1970s were converted into agricultural land, mainly for rubber and oil palm plantations. Abdullah and Nakagoshi (2007) stated that human land use change was the main cause of deforestation in the state of Selangor, Peninsular Malaysia. In tropical regions, many studies have shown that human intervention in land utilization has changed forest cover over time (Kammerbauer & Ardon 1999; Millington et al. 2003; Van Laake & Sanchez-Azofeifa 2004).


18

Table 2: Trends in land use and land cover changes in the Tasik Chini watershed from 1984 to 2002

Land Use and Land Cover

Type (ha)

Year Increase/Decrease

1984 2002 ha %

Forest 5269.16 4407.46 -861.70 -14.81

Oil Palm 286.76 577.44 +290.68 +4.99

Water 264.60 504.92 +240.32 +4.13

Rubber 0.00 117.20 +117.20 +2.02

Mining 0.00 38.48 +38.48 +0.66

Agriculture 0.00 165.18 +165.18 +2.84 Urban and Associated Area

0.00 9.84 +9.84 +0.17

4.4 Changes in Oil Palm Area Oil palm is considered a major land use type in Malaysia. Due to the high demand of its product both at the local and international market, oil palm plantation areas increased by about 503% from only 641,791 ha in 1975 to 3.9 million ha in 2004 (MPOB 2004). Palm oil production plays an important role in economic development; this human land use activity has been recognized to cause degradation of forested areas (Okuda et al. 2004). The results of the study showed that the largest increase in land use was recorded for oil palm plantation activities. Oil palm expansion of up to 9.92% occurred from 1984 to 2002. In 1984, oil palm land use occupied only 286.76 ha. However, the area was almost double in 2002 with a total coverage of 577.44 ha. When the changes in land use and land cover from 2000 and 2002 were examined, it was found that oil palm areas had drastically increased. Among the industrial crops, oil palm covered the largest area of 577.44 ha or 9.92% of the total land area in 2002. However, its expansion has been recognized to intrude into the forested areas. Historically, large areas of forest were converted into oil palm, which predominantly occurred when the Malaysian development policy favoured agriculture in the 1950s to the 1970s (Kumar 1986). During that period several land schemes were introduced for the development of oil palm, which involved vast clearance of forested areas (Goh 1982). In addition, Abdullah and Nakagoshi (2006) calculated the index to measure the association between oil palm and two other natural land use types namely forest and wetland forest and marshland in Selangor, Malaysia. The results showed that within 30 years (1966 to 1995) oil palm obviously expanded into both forest and, wetland forest and marshland areas. 4.5 Changes in Water Bodies Analyses carried out from 1984 to 2002 have indicated a two-fold increase in the area of water bodies. The expansion of the area under water from 1984 to 2002 was 8.86%. In 1984, the water area occupied 264.60 ha or 4.54%. However, the area was almost doubled in 2002 with a total coverage of 504.92 ha or 8.68% of the study

area. The building of the barrage across the Chini River in 1995 blocked off the lake from the Pahang River. The lake then became a blocked sump and the area of the water increased. Since the construction of the barrage, the natural ecosystem of the lake started to deteriorate and showed signs of stress. The water remained stagnant and this brought about all sorts of problems. Collier et al. (1996) and Petts (1984) showed that dams/barrages could disrupt the structure and function of river ecosystems by modifying the flow regimes, disrupting sediment transport, altering water quality, and severing their biological continuity. The barrage trapped sediment and silt that would normally have drained away through the Chini River into the Pahang River. Thus in the long run, the lake became shallower even as the water level was pushed higher, causing permanent flooding of the lake fringes and surrounding swamp forests. Devi et al. (2008) described siltation and nutrient enrichment as the major cause of problems in the Gilgel Gibe dam in Ethiopia whereby reduced water storage capacity, indirectly shortened the lifetime and increased maintenance costs. 4.6 Changes in Rubber plantation Area Results showed that there were no rubber plantations in the study area up to 1984 and beginning 1990, about 121.76 ha or 2.09% rubber areas were identified in the study area. This meant that 121.76 ha or 2.09% of forest areas were already converted into rubber plantations since 1990. The rubber plantation areas increased from 121.76 ha to 127.40 ha or by 5.64 ha in 2000. In 1990, the percentage change to rubber was about 2.09% but it increased to 2.19% in 2000. When the changes of land use and land cover from 2000 and 2002 were examined, it was found that the rubber areas had decreased. In 2002, rubber plantations covered only 2.01% of the total study area. While the oil palm areas expanded, the area under rubber decreased slightly in 2002, the planted area being only 117.20 ha compared to the previously reported area (127.40 ha) in 2000. Most of the rubber areas were replaced with oil palm plantations in the Tasik Chini watershed after 2000. Abdullah and Nakagoshi (2007) stated that rubber was a declining land use type in Malaysia. A lot of the rubber estates were converted to either urban areas or oil palm estates and these changes were due to the decline in world rubber prices after the introduction of synthetic rubber. 4.7 Changes in Mining Area There were no mining activities in the study area in 1984 but 50.40 ha or 0.87% mining area was identified in 1990. This meant that 50.40 ha or 0.87% forest areas were converted into mining areas in 1990. The mining areas decreased from 50.40 ha (0.87%) to 40.7 ha (0.70%) in 2000. When the changes in land use and land cover from the years 1990 and 2002 were examined, it was found that mining was once a dominant activity in the Tasik Chini region, but it also decreased in 2002. Mining activity had started in the early 1990s, when two mining companies; Penyor Iron Mines and Good Earth Mining extracted iron and manganese ores from Bt. Ketaya, but due to the decrease in market demand (new


18

Table 2: Trends in land use and land cover changes in the Tasik Chini watershed from 1984 to 2002

Land Use and Land Cover

Type (ha)

Year Increase/Decrease

1984 2002 ha %

Forest 5269.16 4407.46 -861.70 -14.81

Oil Palm 286.76 577.44 +290.68 +4.99

Water 264.60 504.92 +240.32 +4.13

Rubber 0.00 117.20 +117.20 +2.02

Mining 0.00 38.48 +38.48 +0.66

Agriculture 0.00 165.18 +165.18 +2.84 Urban and Associated Area

0.00 9.84 +9.84 +0.17

4.4 Changes in Oil Palm Area Oil palm is considered a major land use type in Malaysia. Due to the high demand of its product both at the local and international market, oil palm plantation areas increased by about 503% from only 641,791 ha in 1975 to 3.9 million ha in 2004 (MPOB 2004). Palm oil production plays an important role in economic development; this human land use activity has been recognized to cause degradation of forested areas (Okuda et al. 2004). The results of the study showed that the largest increase in land use was recorded for oil palm plantation activities. Oil palm expansion of up to 9.92% occurred from 1984 to 2002. In 1984, oil palm land use occupied only 286.76 ha. However, the area was almost double in 2002 with a total coverage of 577.44 ha. When the changes in land use and land cover from 2000 and 2002 were examined, it was found that oil palm areas had drastically increased. Among the industrial crops, oil palm covered the largest area of 577.44 ha or 9.92% of the total land area in 2002. However, its expansion has been recognized to intrude into the forested areas. Historically, large areas of forest were converted into oil palm, which predominantly occurred when the Malaysian development policy favoured agriculture in the 1950s to the 1970s (Kumar 1986). During that period several land schemes were introduced for the development of oil palm, which involved vast clearance of forested areas (Goh 1982). In addition, Abdullah and Nakagoshi (2006) calculated the index to measure the association between oil palm and two other natural land use types namely forest and wetland forest and marshland in Selangor, Malaysia. The results showed that within 30 years (1966 to 1995) oil palm obviously expanded into both forest and, wetland forest and marshland areas. 4.5 Changes in Water Bodies Analyses carried out from 1984 to 2002 have indicated a two-fold increase in the area of water bodies. The expansion of the area under water from 1984 to 2002 was 8.86%. In 1984, the water area occupied 264.60 ha or 4.54%. However, the area was almost doubled in 2002 with a total coverage of 504.92 ha or 8.68% of the study

area. The building of the barrage across the Chini River in 1995 blocked off the lake from the Pahang River. The lake then became a blocked sump and the area of the water increased. Since the construction of the barrage, the natural ecosystem of the lake started to deteriorate and showed signs of stress. The water remained stagnant and this brought about all sorts of problems. Collier et al. (1996) and Petts (1984) showed that dams/barrages could disrupt the structure and function of river ecosystems by modifying the flow regimes, disrupting sediment transport, altering water quality, and severing their biological continuity. The barrage trapped sediment and silt that would normally have drained away through the Chini River into the Pahang River. Thus in the long run, the lake became shallower even as the water level was pushed higher, causing permanent flooding of the lake fringes and surrounding swamp forests. Devi et al. (2008) described siltation and nutrient enrichment as the major cause of problems in the Gilgel Gibe dam in Ethiopia whereby reduced water storage capacity, indirectly shortened the lifetime and increased maintenance costs. 4.6 Changes in Rubber plantation Area Results showed that there were no rubber plantations in the study area up to 1984 and beginning 1990, about 121.76 ha or 2.09% rubber areas were identified in the study area. This meant that 121.76 ha or 2.09% of forest areas were already converted into rubber plantations since 1990. The rubber plantation areas increased from 121.76 ha to 127.40 ha or by 5.64 ha in 2000. In 1990, the percentage change to rubber was about 2.09% but it increased to 2.19% in 2000. When the changes of land use and land cover from 2000 and 2002 were examined, it was found that the rubber areas had decreased. In 2002, rubber plantations covered only 2.01% of the total study area. While the oil palm areas expanded, the area under rubber decreased slightly in 2002, the planted area being only 117.20 ha compared to the previously reported area (127.40 ha) in 2000. Most of the rubber areas were replaced with oil palm plantations in the Tasik Chini watershed after 2000. Abdullah and Nakagoshi (2007) stated that rubber was a declining land use type in Malaysia. A lot of the rubber estates were converted to either urban areas or oil palm estates and these changes were due to the decline in world rubber prices after the introduction of synthetic rubber. 4.7 Changes in Mining Area There were no mining activities in the study area in 1984 but 50.40 ha or 0.87% mining area was identified in 1990. This meant that 50.40 ha or 0.87% forest areas were converted into mining areas in 1990. The mining areas decreased from 50.40 ha (0.87%) to 40.7 ha (0.70%) in 2000. When the changes in land use and land cover from the years 1990 and 2002 were examined, it was found that mining was once a dominant activity in the Tasik Chini region, but it also decreased in 2002. Mining activity had started in the early 1990s, when two mining companies; Penyor Iron Mines and Good Earth Mining extracted iron and manganese ores from Bt. Ketaya, but due to the decrease in market demand (new


19

deposits) mining activities were terminated. Later another company, Pacific Oriental started excavation for barite and sulfide minerals. Their activities also ended when they were unsuccessful in their search for new deposits (Muhd. Barzani Gasim et al. 2004; Wetlands International Asia Pacific 1998). However, due to the abandoned mining projects, all mines in the Tasik Chini watershed were closed in 2002. 4.8 Changes in Agricultural Area Agricultural activities rose from 91.24 to 165.18 ha or 1.57 to 2.84% from 1990 to 2002. The opening up of many new areas to be used as farm land was the basic reason for the decrease in forest and swamp areas. On the other hand, during the same period, part of the study area had lost some forest cover due to human activities, mainly logging and shifting cultivation. Miyakuni (1999) mentioned that shifting cultivation was one of the main factors that caused forest degradation in many humid tropical countries like Malaysia. The change detection analysis revealed that the total change of forest area into the agricultural land in 2002 was higher than that in 1990. On examining the results there is indication that there has been extensive change in the land cover due to land use activities, such as clearing of forests for supporting economic and commercial activities, wood fuel harvesting, increased area of agricultural land and hunting. Over the last decade, the significant land conversion from forests to agriculture has rendered Tasik Chini vulnerable to water pollution. FAO (2003) stated that land used for permanent agricultural crops had increased by approximately 35% between 1980 and 2001. Nonetheless, this occurred particularly in developing tropical countries (Hall 2000), where it has been recognized as one of the major proximate causes of deforestation (Hall 2000; Cardille & Foley 2003; Grau et al. 2005; Pacheco 2006). On the global scale 96% of deforestation is associated with agricultural expansion (Geist & Lambin 2002). 4.9 Changes in Settlement Area Results showed that there were no settlement areas in the study area from 1984 to 1995, but 6.44 ha or 0.11% settlement areas were present in 2000. This meant that 6.44 ha or 0.11% of forest areas were converted into settlement areas in 2000. It was found that settlement areas had consistently increased after 1995. When the changes in land use and land cover from 2000 and 2002 were examined, the spatial sizes of settlement areas were determined digitally. The expansion of the settlement areas of up to 9.84 ha or 0.17% of the study area occurred from 2000 to 2002. The reason for this increase was the rise in rapid and unsystematic settlement, together with the spread of agriculture and tourism activities in order to obtain higher income from areas where forests had previously occupied. Results of land use changes between 2000 and 2002 showed that settlement areas increased, while forest areas decreased. Settlement areas included a resort, National Services Centre Camp, tourism centre and road network. Urban settlements in developing countries are, at present,

growing five times as fast as those in developed countries (United Nations 1996). The transformation of natural forest, open or agricultural land into settlements and urban areas is one of the major environmental impacts in most urbanized countries and regions (Bolca et al 2007; OECD 1997; Holdgate 1993). 4.10 Factors contributing to Land Use and Land Cover

Changes Land cover modification and conversion are driven by the interaction in space and time between biophysical and human dimensions (Turner et al. 1993 and 1995; Skole et al. 1994). The results indicate that the forest cover in the Tasik Chini watershed declined from 5269.16 ha in 1984 to 4407.46 ha in 2002, or 14.81 per cent forest loss. These changes were attributed to both anthropogenic and natural factors, including population growth, changes in the economy, occurrence of landslides, cropping trends, indigenous agricultural practices, innovation of new technologies and implementation of government policies, etc. Each of these factors contributes with varying degree to the observed land cover and land use change dynamics of the area. Due to the extensive use of land in the area for agricultural purposes, excess emission of nitrogen and phosphorus from the area would bring about the presence of excess nutrients in Tasik Chini. Nutrient enrichment due to waste water runoff from oil palm plantations, containing fertilizers, pesticides, and herbicides has caused the eutrification phenomenon in the lake. Furthermore there were also pollutants from the existing National Service Centre Camp (PLKN) and the Tasik Chini resort. Although relatively low (0.01 % and 0.04 %), the latter two still play a vital role in joining in and being responsible for causing the water pollution in Task Chini. It follows that proper mitigation is needed in order to maintain the water quality of the lake system. Li et al. (2007) realized that two factors namely natural factors and socio-economic factors affect land use and land cover changes worldwide. 5. Conclusion Results of this study conducted in the Tasik Chini watershed indicate that forest areas decreased over the last 18 years, while oil palm, water bodies, settlement areas and agricultural areas increased. The study of land use and land cover changes during the period 1984 to 2002 has contributed greatly to the prediction of expected future development and has played a guiding role regarding the precautions to be taken in future planning so that the environment in which we live is sustainable. From this study it is apparent that by using the GIS it was possible to examine geographical changes in agricultural, settlement and forested areas as well as in natural habitats within the study area. According to the study results, rapid and unsystematic settlement has, to a great extent, caused destruction of forest and wetland areas, natural recreation areas and wild-life habitats which according to international agreements should be protected, as all of the above mentioned areas are indispensable elements of urban life. Fortunately, from the late 1990s, the environmental problems of logging


20

activities, rapid development and unsustainable agriculture in the study area were recognized widely, and thus national and international ecological projects to protect the wetlands have been developed and adopted. Reasonable industrial structure and proper techniques are needed for maintaining sustainable agriculture. Meanwhile, harness of the degraded land and input of organic fertilizers should also be emphasized. If proper alternative arrangements such as sustainable management of the water resources, protection of logging and creation of awareness among the local people are not immediately implemented, the Tasik Chini environment might degrade at an alarming rate. Acknowledgment This study was conducted and supported by the Ministry of Science and Technology, Malaysia through the IRPA grant, code: 09-02-02-0117-EA294, Zamalah Scheme and OUP fund (Code: UKM-OUP-FST-2008) UKM, Malaysia. References Abdullah, S.A. & Nakagoshi, N. (2007). Forest

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Abdullah, S.A. & Nakagoshi, N. (2006). Changes in landscape spatial pattern in the highly developing state of Selangor, Peninsular Malaysia. Landscape and Urban Planning, 77. Pages: 263-275.

Bolca, M., Turkyilmaz, B., Kurucu, Y., Altinbas, U., Esetlili, M.T. & Gulgun, B. (2007). Determination of Impact of Urbanization on Agricultural Land and Wetland Land Use in Balçovas’ Delta by Remote Sensing and GIS Technique. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment, 131. Pages: 409-419.

Cardille, J.A. & Foley, J.A. (2003). Agricultural land-use change in Brazilian Amazonia between 1980 and 1995: evidence from satellite and census data. Remote Sensing of Environment, 87. Pages: 551-562.

Chase, T.N., Pielke, R.A., Kittel, T.G.F., Nemani, R. & Running, S.W. (1999). Simulated impacts of historical land cover changes on global climate in northern winter. Climate Dynamics, 16. Pages:93-105.

Collier, M., Webb, R.H. & Schmidt, J.C. (1996). Dams and river: Primer on the downstream effects of dams. US Geological Survey Circular, Page: 1126.

Devi, R., Tesfahune, E., Legesse, W., Deboch, B. & Beyene, A. (2008). Assessment of siltation and nutrient enrichment of Gilgel Gibe dam, Southwest Ethiopia. Bioresource Technology, 99. Pages: 975-979.

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Goh, K.C. (1982). Environmental impact of economic development in Peninsular Malaysia: a review. Applied Geography, 2. Pages:3-16.

Grau, H.R., Gasparri, N.I. & Aide, T.M. (2005). Agricultural expansion and deforestation in seasonally dry forests of north-west Argentina. Environmental Conservation, 32. Pages: 1-9.

Hall, C.A.S. (2000). The changing tropics. In: Hall, C.A.S. (Ed.), Quantifying Sustainable Development: The Future of Tropical Economies. Academic Press, Pages: 3-18.

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Houghton, R.A., Hackler, J.L. & Lawrence, K.T. (1999). The U.S. carbon budget: Contribution from land-use change. Science, 285. Pages: 574-578.

Kammerbauer, J. & Ardon, C. (1999). Land use dynamics and landscape change pattern in a typical watershed in the hillside region of central Honduras. Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment, 75. Pages: 93-100.

Kasperson, J.X., Kasperson, R.E. & Turner B.L. (ed.). (1995). Regions at risk: Comparisons of threatened environments. United Nations University Press: Tokyo.

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Li, X., Wang, Z., Song, K., Zhang, B., Liu, D. & Guo, Z. (2007). Assessment for Salinized Wasteland Expansion and Land Use Change Using GIS and Remote Sensing in the West Part of Northeast China. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment 131. Pages: 421-437.

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Meyer, W.B. & Turner, B.L. (1992). Human population growth and global land use/cover change. Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics, 23. Pages: 39-61.

Meyer, W.B. & Turner, B.L. (1991). Changes in land use and land cover: A global perspective. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Millington, A.C., Velez-Liendo, X.M. & Bradley, A.V. (2003). Scale dependence in multitemporal


20

activities, rapid development and unsustainable agriculture in the study area were recognized widely, and thus national and international ecological projects to protect the wetlands have been developed and adopted. Reasonable industrial structure and proper techniques are needed for maintaining sustainable agriculture. Meanwhile, harness of the degraded land and input of organic fertilizers should also be emphasized. If proper alternative arrangements such as sustainable management of the water resources, protection of logging and creation of awareness among the local people are not immediately implemented, the Tasik Chini environment might degrade at an alarming rate. Acknowledgment This study was conducted and supported by the Ministry of Science and Technology, Malaysia through the IRPA grant, code: 09-02-02-0117-EA294, Zamalah Scheme and OUP fund (Code: UKM-OUP-FST-2008) UKM, Malaysia. References Abdullah, S.A. & Nakagoshi, N. (2007). Forest

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Bolca, M., Turkyilmaz, B., Kurucu, Y., Altinbas, U., Esetlili, M.T. & Gulgun, B. (2007). Determination of Impact of Urbanization on Agricultural Land and Wetland Land Use in Balçovas’ Delta by Remote Sensing and GIS Technique. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment, 131. Pages: 409-419.

Cardille, J.A. & Foley, J.A. (2003). Agricultural land-use change in Brazilian Amazonia between 1980 and 1995: evidence from satellite and census data. Remote Sensing of Environment, 87. Pages: 551-562.

Chase, T.N., Pielke, R.A., Kittel, T.G.F., Nemani, R. & Running, S.W. (1999). Simulated impacts of historical land cover changes on global climate in northern winter. Climate Dynamics, 16. Pages:93-105.

Collier, M., Webb, R.H. & Schmidt, J.C. (1996). Dams and river: Primer on the downstream effects of dams. US Geological Survey Circular, Page: 1126.

Devi, R., Tesfahune, E., Legesse, W., Deboch, B. & Beyene, A. (2008). Assessment of siltation and nutrient enrichment of Gilgel Gibe dam, Southwest Ethiopia. Bioresource Technology, 99. Pages: 975-979.

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21

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Wetlands International Asia Pacific. (1998). The ecological assessment of Tasik Chini Pahang, Peninsular Malaysia: an evaluation of its conservation value and environmental improvement requirements. Kuala Lumpur: WIAP.

Wong, K.H. (1974). Land Use in Malaysia. Ministry of Agriculture: Kuala Lumpur.

Wood, T.S. & Baldwin, S. (1985). Fuel wood and charcoal use in a developing country. Annual Review of Energy, 10. Pages: 407-429.

______________ *Corresponding author. Tel: 609-5493374; Fax: 609-5492998 *Email address: [email protected]

Improving Peat Engineering Properties by Natural Mineral Mixture

Nurmunira Muhammad, Abdoullah Namdar*, Ideris Bin Zakaria Faculty of Civil Engineering & Earth Resources, Universiti Malaysia Pahang, Malaysia ________________________________________________________________________________

____________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ______________________ ___________________________________________________________________

1. Introduction Any soil has specific engineering and mechanical properties. Among them the peat is one of weakest soil for construction or if located in subsoil shown high settlement, low bearing capacity and low shear strength. It is due to peat texture, mineralogy and morphology. The 8% of Malaysia covert by peat which is one of geotechnical problem faced this territory (Mutalib et. al., 1991). Moreover, Toh et al. (1994) also mention the peat has high water content in range of 200-2000%, low bulk densities of 10kN/m3 and low shear strength of the of 5-10 kPa, this is weak soil and requires a special treatment for improvement its characteristics.

The peat with a CBR of 2 to 4% in road construction

industry is resulted in weak serviceability, and unacceptable limit field deflection (MacFarlane, 1969), and consequently settlement and stress in subsoil is increased (Davitt and Killeen, 1996). Excavation to more stable materials such as rock, gravel or clay are recommended (Anon, 1978), and it is only economical method if road is constructed on peaty subsoil (Hampson, 1993), but sometimes due to site geomorphology excavation is not suitable method, and after excavation is required to replace suitable material with economical point of view.

The peat soil has very high compressibility compared to clay, sand and gravel (Charman, 2002). There are various types of natural and synthetics minerals have been used in construction industries, and from other hand many researcher are interest to develop new minerals for improving soil engineering properties. Instead, some cases of mineral usage have been discussed by other researcher. The presence of kaolin as a natural mineral additive also been widely used as ground improvement technique like dry deep mixing method using lime-cement columns that transferring physical load between column and subsoils, but Larson et.al. (2009) using kaolin for attract Na+ and K+ ions in lime to improve the undrained shear strength properties. There are also comparisons between the sodium silicate, OPC and kaolinite as binder in soil grouting columns for peat soil and it indicate that OPC result is much better than sodium silicate and kaolinite in terms of shear strength but kaolinite could form a connection with peat (Huat et al. 2011). Recently, the research findings will deeply discussed into the mineralogy and morphology of soils that could explain the existence of new minerals as stabilizer or binder (Hashim, 2003). The presence of kaolin as soil stabilizer by natural mixed with peat soil is not broadly discussed in geotechnical engineering especially for ground improvement. Seldom studies are documented for improve peat soil mechanical properties.

Keywords: Kaolin Heat Dry density Liquid limit Plastic limit


Geo-Environmental



The mixed soil is appropriate technique for solve geotechnical engineering problems. The main problem of case study is spreading peat in vast area. The exaction and replacing soil from far distance resulted in finishing project with high cost. In this regard improving peat mechanical properties by using modified kaolin under, 200°C, 400°C, 600°C and 800°C heat has been investigated. The liquid limit, plastic limit and dry density are main objectives in this research work. The result indicated that the new minerals are developed during modifying kaolin submitted to heat and it is improving peat liquid limit and plastic limit. And in soil mixture dry density is reduced, it is expected to improve peaty subsoil allowable deformation by using this technique in site. Thus further investigations are needed for assessing specimen shear strength, bearing capacity, settlement and deformation.


24

1E-4 1E-3 0.01 0.1 10

20

40

60

80

100

Cum

ula

tive p

erc

enta

ge (

%)

Particle size (mm)

This is an investigation for improving some mechanical properties of peat by using natural mineral as additive. 2. Methodology The peat soil has been collected from Jalan Kuantan-Pekan, Pahang with a coordinate of longitude 103.301239E and latitude 3.650854N. The area was well-known with the problematic soil. The peat in that area was formed by decaying of vegetation in clayey or sandy soils. The sample was collected in mentioned area and has been mixed with unheated Kaolin and, heated Kaolin which was subjected to 200°C, 400°C, 600°C and 800°C heat. The mixture proportion of peat with each of unheated and heated Kaolin were 90:10, 80:20, 70:30, 60:40 and 50:50. The liquid limit, plastic limit, sieve analysis and standard proctor tests have been performed.

The liquid limit, plastic limit, sieve analysis and standard proctor tests have been performed. All tests were carrying out using BS 1377. Mineralogical analyses only been performed for percentage mixture of peat with the raw and thermally heated kaolin samples that attain maximum result for liquid limit and plastic limit by using X-ray diffraction instrument in UMP FIST laboratory. This is due to obtain the behavior of mixed samples when it under wet conditions. 3. Result and discussion

The mixed soil technique had been studied by several researchers. The soil mechanical properties and particle size distribution of peat soil are showed in Table 1 and Figure 1, respectively. The peat has low plasticity. The Figure 1 is indicated that the soil is well-graded and sand is a major proportion. Table 2 and Figure 2 summarize the liquid limit, plastic limit and plastic indexes of peat-kaolin mixture. The liquid limit and plastic limit of peat-kaolin are improved. The kaolin mineralogy is improved liquid limit and plastic limit. And new minerals are developed because of kaolin subjected to heat this accelerates improving liquid limit and plastic limit of peat-kaolin. The mechanical property of kaolinite is changed due to submitted to 500°C heat based on the previous study (Abdoullah and Suresh, 2011). We applied 200°C, 400°C, 600°C and 800°C of heat to kaolin and resulted in accelerate improving liquid limit and plastic limit due to creation of new minerals which can help in solving some geotechnical engineering problems.

Table 1: Mechanical properties of peat

Figure 1: Particle size distribution curve of peat

Table 2: Results of liquid limit and plastic limit of kaolin-peat mixture

Properties Peat soil

Liquid Limit (%) Plastic Limit (%)

Plasticity Index (%) Gravel (%) Sand (%) Silt (%)

Clay (%) Density (kg/m3)

Soil Type (USCS) Description

38.59 29.36 9.23

0 70 29 1

1655.69 SM

Silty Sand

Peat Kaolin Liquid Limit (%)

Plastic limit (%)

Plastic index (%)

Peat 100% - 38.59 29.36 9.23

Peat + Kaolin (0°C)

90% 80% 70% 60% 50%

10% 20% 30% 40% 50%

39.81 40.05 43.99 46.65 51.64

34.01 38.79 40.71 43.31 47.98

5.80 1.26 3.28 3.00 3.66


90% 80% 70% 60% 50%

10% 20% 30% 40% 50%

38.48 41.35 44.13 46.65 50.44

34.41 37.17 41.69 42.71 44.62

4.07 4.18 2.44 3.94 5.82


90% 80% 70% 60% 50%

10% 20% 30% 40% 50%

37.38 42.22 45.49 46.72 47.42

31.31 37.04 40.76 41.61 42.92

6.07 5.18 4.73 5.11 4.50


90% 80% 70% 60% 50%

10% 20% 30% 40% 50%

39.94 45.2

50.17 54.78 57.08

31.31 41.70 46.16 52.12 52.15

8.45 3.50 4.01 2.66 4.93


90% 80% 70% 60% 50%

10% 20% 30% 40% 50%

41.78 47.14 54.26 60.55 66.72

36.22 38.11 51.77 56.05 61.23

5.56 9.03 2.49 4.50 5.49


26

Figure 3: Standard proctor compaction result of mixed soil. Figure 4: XRD result of raw Kaolin and thermally heated Kaolin

Figure 5: XRD analysis of mixed soils for 50% ratio

Figure 4 illustrates the XRD analysis of kaolin, and it shows new minerals are developed when the kaolin is subjected to heat. It is highlighted the new mineral was figured when the kaolin subjected to 400°C and 600°C. The unknown mineral is appeared when kaolin subjected to 800°C which means new unidentified minerals was formed when kaolin subjected to very high temperature. As a result, thermally heated kaolin can improve liquid limit and plastic limit of peat-kaolin mixture which can help in solving some geotechnical engineering problems. The mechanical property of kaolinite is changed due to submitted to 500°C heat based on the previous study (Abdoullah and Suresh, 2011).

Figure 5 shows the XRD analysis of peat-kaolin mixture samples for each 50% proportion. Based on the previous discussion of liquid limit and plastic limit, the trends of data will go higher when the mixture is 50:50. However, the XRD cannot analyze the minerals present when the peat and kaolin is mixed together. Due to this case, the samples should be analyzed by using Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR) and Field Emission Scanning Electron Microscopy (FESEM) to get detail on chemical composition and morphology of soils. However, further study on peat-kaolin mixture is required for assessing specimen shear strength, bearing capacity, settlement and deformation. 4. Conclusion Based on the result and findings from this research, it can be concluded that:

1. In this research work has been found that in mixed soil process, by heat treated kaolin, is improved peat liquid limit and plastic limit.

2. Modifying kaolin mineralogy in high temperature level is accelerated improving peat liquid limit and plastic limit.

3. Mixing unheated kaolin to peat is resulted in maximum level for enhancing specimen dry density while modifying kaolin mineralogy in high degree of

5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 501100

1200

1300

1400

1500

1600

1700

unheated

200oC

400oC

600oC

800oC

Dry

den

sity

(kg

/m3 )

Percentage of kaolin (%)

5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 501100

1200

1300

1400

1500

1600

1700 600oC 10%

600oC 20%

600oC 30%

600oC 40%

Dry

den

sity

(kg

/m3 )

Moisture content (%)

5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 501100

1200

1300

1400

1500

1600

1700 800oC 10%

800oC 20%

800oC 40%

Dry

den

sity

(kg

/m3 )



24

1E-4 1E-3 0.01 0.1 10

20

40

60

80

100

Cum

ula

tive p

erc

enta

ge (

%)

Particle size (mm)

This is an investigation for improving some mechanical properties of peat by using natural mineral as additive. 2. Methodology The peat soil has been collected from Jalan Kuantan-Pekan, Pahang with a coordinate of longitude 103.301239E and latitude 3.650854N. The area was well-known with the problematic soil. The peat in that area was formed by decaying of vegetation in clayey or sandy soils. The sample was collected in mentioned area and has been mixed with unheated Kaolin and, heated Kaolin which was subjected to 200°C, 400°C, 600°C and 800°C heat. The mixture proportion of peat with each of unheated and heated Kaolin were 90:10, 80:20, 70:30, 60:40 and 50:50. The liquid limit, plastic limit, sieve analysis and standard proctor tests have been performed.

The liquid limit, plastic limit, sieve analysis and standard proctor tests have been performed. All tests were carrying out using BS 1377. Mineralogical analyses only been performed for percentage mixture of peat with the raw and thermally heated kaolin samples that attain maximum result for liquid limit and plastic limit by using X-ray diffraction instrument in UMP FIST laboratory. This is due to obtain the behavior of mixed samples when it under wet conditions. 3. Result and discussion

The mixed soil technique had been studied by several researchers. The soil mechanical properties and particle size distribution of peat soil are showed in Table 1 and Figure 1, respectively. The peat has low plasticity. The Figure 1 is indicated that the soil is well-graded and sand is a major proportion. Table 2 and Figure 2 summarize the liquid limit, plastic limit and plastic indexes of peat-kaolin mixture. The liquid limit and plastic limit of peat-kaolin are improved. The kaolin mineralogy is improved liquid limit and plastic limit. And new minerals are developed because of kaolin subjected to heat this accelerates improving liquid limit and plastic limit of peat-kaolin. The mechanical property of kaolinite is changed due to submitted to 500°C heat based on the previous study (Abdoullah and Suresh, 2011). We applied 200°C, 400°C, 600°C and 800°C of heat to kaolin and resulted in accelerate improving liquid limit and plastic limit due to creation of new minerals which can help in solving some geotechnical engineering problems.

Table 1: Mechanical properties of peat

Figure 1: Particle size distribution curve of peat

Table 2: Results of liquid limit and plastic limit of kaolin-peat mixture

Properties Peat soil

Liquid Limit (%) Plastic Limit (%)

Plasticity Index (%) Gravel (%) Sand (%) Silt (%)

Clay (%) Density (kg/m3)

Soil Type (USCS) Description

38.59 29.36 9.23

0 70 29 1

1655.69 SM

Silty Sand

Peat Kaolin Liquid Limit (%)

Plastic limit (%)

Plastic index (%)

Peat 100% - 38.59 29.36 9.23


90% 80% 70% 60% 50%

10% 20% 30% 40% 50%

39.81 40.05 43.99 46.65 51.64

34.01 38.79 40.71 43.31 47.98

5.80 1.26 3.28 3.00 3.66


90% 80% 70% 60% 50%

10% 20% 30% 40% 50%

38.48 41.35 44.13 46.65 50.44

34.41 37.17 41.69 42.71 44.62

4.07 4.18 2.44 3.94 5.82


90% 80% 70% 60% 50%

10% 20% 30% 40% 50%

37.38 42.22 45.49 46.72 47.42

31.31 37.04 40.76 41.61 42.92

6.07 5.18 4.73 5.11 4.50


90% 80% 70% 60% 50%

10% 20% 30% 40% 50%

39.94 45.2

50.17 54.78 57.08

31.31 41.70 46.16 52.12 52.15

8.45 3.50 4.01 2.66 4.93


90% 80% 70% 60% 50%

10% 20% 30% 40% 50%

41.78 47.14 54.26 60.55 66.72

36.22 38.11 51.77 56.05 61.23

5.56 9.03 2.49 4.50 5.49


25

Figure 2: Results of liquid limit and plastic limit of kaolin-peat mixture

Figure 2: Results of liquid limit and plastic limit of kaolin-peat mixture

Table 3 and Figure 3 contain dry density of mixed

soil and illustrated mixed soil proportion. The density of peat soil as indicated in Table 1 is 1655.69 kg/m3. The experimental is identified that, the mixture of unheated kaolin with peat improve 3% of dry density. The investigation shows increasing heat in modifying kaolin lead to decrease of density and increasing proportion of kaolin in mixture specimen also reduces density. Although the increment of changing density is not too high but previous study is highlighted that the shear strength of kaolin when treated by heat increases due to increasing cohesion and internal angle of friction even the density is reduced (Abdoullah and Suresh, 2011) but that investigation was kaolin submitted to 500°C heat and it was not mixed to any soil.

The density of mixed soil is reducing because

moisture in crystal of kaolin is vaporized. However, further study on peat-kaolin mixture is required for assessing specimen shear strength, bearing capacity, settlement and deformation.

Peat Kaolin Optimum Moisture Content

(%)

Dry Density (kg/m3)


90% 80% 70% 60% 50%

10% 20% 30% 40% 50%

17.90 16.47 17.04 19.79 24.15

1693.17 1707.52 1684.88 1641.15 1591.07


90% 80% 70% 60% 50%

10% 20% 30% 40% 50%

18.51 17.47 21.93 20.81 25.47

1688.13 1664.88 1628.19 1633.64 1535.61


90% 80% 70% 60% 50%

10% 20% 30% 40% 50%

19.54 19.19 23.09 23.63 27.84

1674.44 1636.88 1595.83 1548.56 1469.62


90% 80% 70% 60% 50%

10% 20% 30% 40% 50%

24.31 27.22 31.22 33.49

-

1543.00 1485.36 1388.65 1320.91

-


90% 80% 70% 60% 50%

10% 20% 30% 40% 50%

26.58 29.50

- 37.79

-

1508.89 1426.32

- 1312.13

-

Table 3: Results of optimum moisture content and dry density of mixed soil

10 20 30 40 5025

30

35

40

45

50

55

60

65

70 unheated

200oC

400oC

600oC

800oC Peat Plastic Limit

Liqu

id L

imit

(%)

Moisture Content (%)

10 20 30 40 5025

30

35

40

45

50

55

60

65

70 unheated

200oC

400oC

600oC

800oC peat plastic limit

Plas

tic L

imit

(%)

percentage mixture (%)

5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 501100

1200

1300

1400

1500

1600

1700

unheated 10% unheated 20% unheated 30% unheated 40% unheated 50%

Dry

Den

sity

(kg

/m3 )


5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 501100

1200

1300

1400

1500

1600

1700

200oC 10%

200oC 20%

200oC 30%

200oC 40%

200oC 50%

Dry

Den

sity

(kg

/m3 )


5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 501100

1200

1300

1400

1500

1600

1700 400oC 10%

400oC 20%

400oC 30%

400oC 40%

400oC 50%

Dry

den

sity

(kg

/m3 )



26








5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 501100

1200

1300

1400

1500

1600

1700

unheated

200oC

400oC

600oC

800oC

Dry

den

sity

(kg

/m3 )


5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 501100

1200

1300

1400

1500

1600

1700 600oC 10%

600oC 20%

600oC 30%

600oC 40%

Dry

den

sity

(kg

/m3 )


5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 501100

1200

1300

1400

1500

1600

1700 800oC 10%

800oC 20%

800oC 40%

Dry

den

sity

(kg

/m3 )



26








5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 501100

1200

1300

1400

1500

1600

1700

unheated

200oC

400oC

600oC

800oC

Dry

den

sity

(kg

/m3 )


5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 501100

1200

1300

1400

1500

1600

1700 600oC 10%

600oC 20%

600oC 30%

600oC 40%

Dry

den

sity

(kg

/m3 )


5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 501100

1200

1300

1400

1500

1600

1700 800oC 10%

800oC 20%

800oC 40%

Dry

den

sity

(kg

/m3 )



26








5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 501100

1200

1300

1400

1500

1600

1700

unheated

200oC

400oC

600oC

800oC

Dry

den

sity

(kg

/m3 )


5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 501100

1200

1300

1400

1500

1600

1700 600oC 10%

600oC 20%

600oC 30%

600oC 40%

Dry

den

sity

(kg

/m3 )


5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 501100

1200

1300

1400

1500

1600

1700 800oC 10%

800oC 20%

800oC 40%

Dry

den

sity

(kg

/m3 )



27

temperature is reduced specimen dry density. It is expected to improve peaty subsoil allowable deformation by using this technique.

4. New minerals presence in thermally heated kaolin subjected to improve the liquidity and plasticity of weak soils. The weak soils became more stabilize due to existence of unknown minerals that should be identified by more advance equipment.

5. Analyzing mineralogy of mixed soils using XRD instrument could not give sufficient result of minerals that present in peat-kaolin soils. The investigation of micro properties and morphology of soils should be investigating using NMR and FESEM experimental equipment.

6. The micro and macro properties study on kaolin and kaolin-peat are required and also the more investigations are needed for assessing specimen shear strength, bearing capacity, settlement and deformation.

7. The application of this research work is for low cost ground improvement due to mix with natural minerals resource soil and enhancing subsoil bearing capacity, while is one of important geotechnical problem and responsible for many subsoil and earth structure failure.

References

Abdoullah N. and Suresh N., (2011). Evaluation of

Slope Reliability, Kaolinite Thermal Evaluation in Geotechnical Engineering, Advance in National Applied Science, 5(2), 85-92.

Anon, (1978). Specifications for road works Department of Environment Stationary Office. Dublin.

Charman D. J., (2002). Peatland systems and environmental change. John Wiley & Sons, Chichester. 301.

Davitt S. and Killeen R.C., (1996). Maintenance techniques for bog roads. National Roads Authority (NRA) report RC. 375NRA, Dublin.

Hampson D. M., (1993). Constructing low cost un- surfaced roads. Forestry Eng Specialist Group Heriot Watt University, Edinburgh.

Hashim R., (2003). Properties of Stabilized Peat by Soil-Cement Column Method, EJGE, vol. 13, 1-9.

Huat B. B. K., Kazemian S., and Kuang W. L., (2011) “Effect of Cement-Sodium Silicate Grout and Kaolinite on Undrained Shear Strength of Reinforced Peat,” EDGE, vol. 16, no. Bund. K, 1221-1228.

Larsson S., Rothhämel M., and G. Jacks, (2009). A laboratory study on strength loss in kaolin surrounding lime–cement columns,” Applied Clay Science, vol. 44, no. 1-2, 116-126.

Mutalib A. A., Lim J. S., Wong M. H. and Koonvai L., 1991, Characterization, distribution and utilization of peat in Malaysia. Proc. Int. Syrup, May. 1991 Tropical Peat land, Kuching, Malaysia.

MacFarlane I.C., (1969), Muskeg engineering handbook University of Toronto Press, Toronto.

Toh C.T., Chee S. K., Lee C. H., and Wee S. H., (1994). Geotextile-bamboo fascine mattress for filling over very soft soils in Malaysia. Engineering, 13, 357-369.

______________ *Corresponding author. Tel: 6019-4886858 *Email address: [email protected]

Transformer Explosion and Impact on the Reinforced Blast Wall

Mazlan Abu Seman1, Feng Yun Tian2, Zainorizuan Mohd Jaini3, Nasly Mohammed Ali1 1 Faculty of Civil Engineering & Earth Resources, Universiti Malaysia Pahang, Malaysia

2 Civil & Computational Engineering Centre, College of Engineering, Swansea University, Wales, United Kingdom 3 Faculty of Civil & Environmental Engineering , Universiti Tun Hussein Onn Malaysia, Malaysia ________________________________________________________________________________

____________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ______________________ ___________________________________________________________________

1. Introduction Electric substation is the place where electrical transformers are installed in order to transform electric voltage from high to low level or otherwise before it can be distributed to respective customer. Typically, there are more than one transformers operating to supply electricity. Reinforced concrete wall become in practice in Malaysia in order to protect another transformers in the event of transformer explosion, which is those transformer normally adjacent to each other.

For comparison, as reported by (Duarte, 2004), initially the substations in Brazil were operating for some years with without wall in between transformer. Probably due to transformer fire at one of the substation, the firewall is constructed. In the studies revealed, the

firewall can start to collapse after just one hour. In fact, the firewall is designed for 4 hours fire resistance. This is because, the energy released by the transformer explosion and the subsequent effect of fire didn’t take into consideration during the design stage.

This study presents the simulation result of the potential damage of transformer tank rupture on a reinforced concrete wall. Although there is no direct experimental result available yet to validate the numerical result, the previous field test provided the indirect result for the comparison.

2. Transformer Explosion In general, transformer explosions are originated from broken-down insulations, which may be caused by over load switching, lightning surges, deterioration of insulations, low level and moisture or acid contamination

Keywords: Transformer Explosion Reinforced Concrete Finite Element Blast Loading


Geo-Environmental



Transformer is one of the vital equipment to provide stable and reliable electricity to the community. The transformer is quiet while in operation, therefore it is hardly to realise if placed inside the building. The price for one transformer can be up to few millions Malaysian Ringgit. The worst of the transformer explosion may lead to the major blackout. Transformer explosion may due to, lack of maintenance or the problems inside itself whilst in operation. In the past at substation, the transformers were placed adjacent to each other and without a wall in between. Nowadays, installing walls between transformers have become in practice to protect other transformers in the events of explosion. In Malaysia, a reinforced blast wall is built as the protection. The finite element method (FEM) is employed for the simulation of the potential damage of reinforced blast wall. A FEM software is used due to the capability of analysing and simulating reinforced concrete structures subjected to high rate and short duration dynamic loading in the previous research works. The simulation results clearly reveal, after the impact load is applied, the cracks start to occur at certain time instants at the bottom of the wall on the transformer side. This follows later with the cracks on the other side at about one third of the wall height. The propagations of the crack then continue to move downwards in the curvy shape. The previous work and the field test provide indirect evidence that the structural behaviour and the cracks patterns are comprehended.


30

in the transformer oil. Inside the transformer, with the high temperature and energy released by the arc, the insulation oil will be decomposed to highly explosive gasses, mainly Hydrogen and Acetylene. This decomposition process will generate pressure inside the transformer tank until the tank cannot withstand and the tank rupture occurred (Surasit, 2008, Chille et al., 1998, GexCon, 2007). According to the Investigation Report Power Transformer Tank Rupture and Mitigation by the Task Force of IEEE Power Transformer Subcommittee on March 09, 2010 Houston, Texas, when the explosion happen the transformer are able to release the arc energy between 1 MJ up to 147 MJ (IEEE, 2010). 3. Blast Pressure Analysis

Detonation of high explosives usually produces an ideal blast wave, which is symmetrical. The pressure generated at distance R from the center of explosion originally at the ambient pressure, then instantaneously reach to peak pressure in the time of msec. From the positive pressure phase, the pressure decay to ambient pressure then drops to negative pressure phase before returns to ambient pressure. The resulting pressure can be described by the modified Friedlender equation, which is dependent on time. This equation allows some freedom to customize the pressure profile for any explosion at various distance from the source (Baker, 1973). 3.1 TNT Equivalent The Trinitrotoluene (TNT) mass equivalent used to model the effect of the explosion that the energy released is equated to the mass of TNT, where the impact will give the equivalent amount of damage. Once the equivalent is assumed, the variation of overpressure and impulse will be determined according to a graph or related equation (Philips et al., 1994). For the transformer tank rupture, the highest arc energy reported is used to calculate WTNT for further blast analysis.

The highest arc energy reported is used to calculate WTNT for further blast analysis. 3.2 Scaling Law and Blast Load at Point Above Ground All blast parameters are primarily dependent of the amount of energy released by a detonation in the form of a blast wave and the distance from the explosion. It can be calculated from the relation of

where R is the actual effective distance from the explosion and WTNT as an equivalent mass of TNT. The scaling law provides parametric correlations between a particular explosion and a standard charge of the same substance (Ngo et al., 2007).

Angle of incident is one of the factor affect the blast load on structural component. The angle on incident is the angle between outward normal to the direct vector from the explosive charge as shown in Figure 1 (Remennikov) . This method is used to determine the blast load at the point of interest on the surface of the blast wall. The formula is stated below

Figure 1: Simplified geometry of typical bomb on the structure.

3.3 Blast Calculation

TM5-1300 (UFC 3-340-02) - Structure to resist the effect of accidental explosion by US Army Technical Manual (US Department of the Army, 1990) is used to predict the blast pressure on the structure. The scaling graph give the positive phase parameters for a surface burst of a hemispherical TNT charge is used. The important parameters provided are; peak reflected over pressure (Pr), peak over pressure (Pso), blast arrival time (ta), positive phase duration (to), and blast velocity of wave front (U). With the data provided from graph, the dynamic wind blast blast (Pq) as stated by Ngo (Ngo et al., 2007) is calculated by

Kingery-Bulmash developed equations to predict air blast and it is widely accepted to predict free-field pressure and loads on structures (Kingery and Bulmash, 1984). The equation takes realistic approach and assuming an exponential decay of pressure in time as stated below

where Pt is the pressure at time t (kPa); Pso is the peak incident pressure (kPa); to is the positive phase duration (msec); b is the decay coefficient (dimensionless); and ta is the arrival time (msec). To fully utilize the equation above, the following equation as mentioned by Lam (Lam et al., 2004) is used


30

in the transformer oil. Inside the transformer, with the high temperature and energy released by the arc, the insulation oil will be decomposed to highly explosive gasses, mainly Hydrogen and Acetylene. This decomposition process will generate pressure inside the transformer tank until the tank cannot withstand and the tank rupture occurred (Surasit, 2008, Chille et al., 1998, GexCon, 2007). According to the Investigation Report Power Transformer Tank Rupture and Mitigation by the Task Force of IEEE Power Transformer Subcommittee on March 09, 2010 Houston, Texas, when the explosion happen the transformer are able to release the arc energy between 1 MJ up to 147 MJ (IEEE, 2010). 3. Blast Pressure Analysis

Detonation of high explosives usually produces an ideal blast wave, which is symmetrical. The pressure generated at distance R from the center of explosion originally at the ambient pressure, then instantaneously reach to peak pressure in the time of msec. From the positive pressure phase, the pressure decay to ambient pressure then drops to negative pressure phase before returns to ambient pressure. The resulting pressure can be described by the modified Friedlender equation, which is dependent on time. This equation allows some freedom to customize the pressure profile for any explosion at various distance from the source (Baker, 1973). 3.1 TNT Equivalent The Trinitrotoluene (TNT) mass equivalent used to model the effect of the explosion that the energy released is equated to the mass of TNT, where the impact will give the equivalent amount of damage. Once the equivalent is assumed, the variation of overpressure and impulse will be determined according to a graph or related equation (Philips et al., 1994). For the transformer tank rupture, the highest arc energy reported is used to calculate WTNT for further blast analysis.

The highest arc energy reported is used to calculate WTNT for further blast analysis. 3.2 Scaling Law and Blast Load at Point Above Ground All blast parameters are primarily dependent of the amount of energy released by a detonation in the form of a blast wave and the distance from the explosion. It can be calculated from the relation of

where R is the actual effective distance from the explosion and WTNT as an equivalent mass of TNT. The scaling law provides parametric correlations between a particular explosion and a standard charge of the same substance (Ngo et al., 2007).

Angle of incident is one of the factor affect the blast load on structural component. The angle on incident is the angle between outward normal to the direct vector from the explosive charge as shown in Figure 1 (Remennikov) . This method is used to determine the blast load at the point of interest on the surface of the blast wall. The formula is stated below

Figure 1: Simplified geometry of typical bomb on the structure.

3.3 Blast Calculation

TM5-1300 (UFC 3-340-02) - Structure to resist the effect of accidental explosion by US Army Technical Manual (US Department of the Army, 1990) is used to predict the blast pressure on the structure. The scaling graph give the positive phase parameters for a surface burst of a hemispherical TNT charge is used. The important parameters provided are; peak reflected over pressure (Pr), peak over pressure (Pso), blast arrival time (ta), positive phase duration (to), and blast velocity of wave front (U). With the data provided from graph, the dynamic wind blast blast (Pq) as stated by Ngo (Ngo et al., 2007) is calculated by

Kingery-Bulmash developed equations to predict air blast and it is widely accepted to predict free-field pressure and loads on structures (Kingery and Bulmash, 1984). The equation takes realistic approach and assuming an exponential decay of pressure in time as stated below

where Pt is the pressure at time t (kPa); Pso is the peak incident pressure (kPa); to is the positive phase duration (msec); b is the decay coefficient (dimensionless); and ta is the arrival time (msec). To fully utilize the equation above, the following equation as mentioned by Lam (Lam et al., 2004) is used


31

3.4 Pressure Distribution

The mapping method (Jaini and Feng, 2010) is used for the blast pressure distribution on the wall surface, where the arrival time (ta) is used as the identification for the grouping purpose. In the computation sheet, the arrival time (ta) for certain angles of incident will have a closer value. From this parameter, the different hemispherical radius can be mapped on the wall surface. The average value of blast pressures is taken for each groups based on the closest group of the arrival time (ta). Figure 2 shows 18 areas with different blast pressures time histories according to the blast energy of 147MJ released at the centre and bottom of the transformer with a 1meter standoff distance.

Figure 2: Blast pressure distribution.

For each blast pressure areas, the blast pressure time history will be imposed with the load curve shows in Figure 3 accordingly. Only the positive blast pressure phase is considered.

Figure 3: Blast pressure time history (Pt)

4. Computational Model Elfen, a finite element package developed by Rockfield Software Limited in Swansea, UK (Rockfield), is used for the simulation in this research work. This is because, Elfen has the capability of analyzing and simulating the reinforced concrete structures subjected to high rate and

short duration dynamic loading (Jaini and Feng, 2010, May et al., 2006).

The full scale of reinforced blast wall constructed by Tenaga Nasional Berhad (TNB) is modeled in Elfen. The blast wall constructed with Grade 30 (fcu=30N/mm2) concrete and high yields steel (fy=460N/mm2). It is consists the reinforcement of 12mm and 16mm radius steel bars center to center with 25mm reinforced cover. For the footing, both horizontal and vertical reinforcement arrangement used 16mm bars. However for wall structure, only vertical arrangement used 16mm bars.

Three-dimensional continuums with four-noded

solid tetrahedral are used for both concrete and steel, where the size of 50mm unstructured meshes is used. 3D beam elements with an elasto-plastic property are used to model reinforcement bars, and a perfect bond condition is assumed between the concrete and the bars.

The Mohr-Coulomb criterion is used for the plastic

strain of concrete, where it ranges between 0 to 100,000s-

1 and the tensile strength from 2.73×106 to 60.18×106N/m2. The implementation of this compression elasto-plastic material includes a cut-off tension in the form of complete Rankine tensile corner with fracture (Rockfield). According to the previous research work (Jaini and Feng, 2010), there is no explicit softening law included for the tensile strength, while indirect softening does result from the degradation of cohesion. Fracture energy plays an important role to determine the crack propagation. The fracture energy for the concrete volume is taken between 75 and 100N/m. For steel, the hardening properties are range 0 to 0.0223s-1 of plastic strains with the tensile strength in the range from 2.5×108 to 6.3×108 N/m2. The Von-Mises criterion is applied for steel and utilized the backward Euler stress update algorithms. This rate independent model is implemented in form of a nonlinear isotropic hardening form, where piecewise linear hardening is specified using hardening material and hardening properties. 5. Result and Discussion The computational result from this study revealed the propagation of the crack propagation, fracture and displacement pattern at the specific time once impact loads is applied on the structure. The crack propagation clearly shows, after the impact load is applied, the cracks start to occur at certain time instants at the bottom of the blast wall on the billet side (transformer side). This follows later with the cracks on the die side (other side) at about one third of the blast wall height. The propagations of the crack then continue to move downwards to the center of the blast wall at the bottom part in the curvy shape. Figure 4 shows the crack propagations, where clearly stated at the time when crack start to appear at the interest positions. At the end of the simulation up to approximately 18msec, the maximum displacement recorded is 22.51mm.


32

Figure 4: Crack propagations

Although, there is no attempt yet done on the exact type on the wall as simulated in this study, the test report by John Culberston (Culberston, 1997) shows favour agreeable. Where, the blast loading pressure map on the building and the post impact on the reinforced concrete wall shows in Figure 5 and Figure 6 below. In this test field, the wall is fixed at 3sides, which is different from the simulation done in the present work; however, the crack pattern highlighted shows a similarity.

Figure 6: Blast loading pressure map on building

Figure 7: Damaged resulting from the detonation

6. Conclusion Finite element analysis of reinforced concrete wall with strip footing subjected to transformer tank rupture was presented. The behaviour and crack pattern of the reinforced concrete wall obtained from the present study is acceptable. This is because, the mapping method and the assumption for the Elfen package used for this study has already been proved in the previous research work, in which the simulation result shows the same crack pattern and behaviour in comparison to the experimental work. Besides, the blasts test done on the reinforced concrete wall building shows similarity in the crack pattern after the blast impact.

References Baker, W. E. (1973) Explosions in Air, University of

Texas Press. Chille, F., Sala, A. & Casadei, F. (1998) Containment of

blast phenomena in underground electrical power plants. Advances in Engineering Software, 29, 7-12.

Culberston, J. (1997) Case Study Relating Blast Effect Tests To The Events of April 19, 1995 Alfred P.Murrah Federal Building Oklahoma City, Oklahoma. Armanent Directorate Wright Laboratory Eglin Air Force Base.

Duarte, D. (2004) A performance overview about fire risk management in the Brazilian hydroelectric generating plants and transmission network. Journal of Loss Prevention in the Process Industries, 17, 65-75.


32

Figure 4: Crack propagations

Although, there is no attempt yet done on the exact type on the wall as simulated in this study, the test report by John Culberston (Culberston, 1997) shows favour agreeable. Where, the blast loading pressure map on the building and the post impact on the reinforced concrete wall shows in Figure 5 and Figure 6 below. In this test field, the wall is fixed at 3sides, which is different from the simulation done in the present work; however, the crack pattern highlighted shows a similarity.

Figure 6: Blast loading pressure map on building

Figure 7: Damaged resulting from the detonation

6. Conclusion Finite element analysis of reinforced concrete wall with strip footing subjected to transformer tank rupture was presented. The behaviour and crack pattern of the reinforced concrete wall obtained from the present study is acceptable. This is because, the mapping method and the assumption for the Elfen package used for this study has already been proved in the previous research work, in which the simulation result shows the same crack pattern and behaviour in comparison to the experimental work. Besides, the blasts test done on the reinforced concrete wall building shows similarity in the crack pattern after the blast impact.

References Baker, W. E. (1973) Explosions in Air, University of

Texas Press. Chille, F., Sala, A. & Casadei, F. (1998) Containment of

blast phenomena in underground electrical power plants. Advances in Engineering Software, 29, 7-12.

Culberston, J. (1997) Case Study Relating Blast Effect Tests To The Events of April 19, 1995 Alfred P.Murrah Federal Building Oklahoma City, Oklahoma. Armanent Directorate Wright Laboratory Eglin Air Force Base.

Duarte, D. (2004) A performance overview about fire risk management in the Brazilian hydroelectric generating plants and transmission network. Journal of Loss Prevention in the Process Industries, 17, 65-75.


33

Gexcon (2007) Transformer explosions. IEEE (2010) Investigation Report Power Transformer

Tank Rupture and Mitigation Houston, Texas, Task Force of IEEE Power Transformer Subcommittee

Jaini, Z. M. & Feng, Y. T. (2010) Computational Simulation if Reinforced Concrete Slab Subjected to Blast Loading. 18th UK Conference on Computational Mechanics (ACME-UK). Southampton.

Kingery, C. N. & Bulmash, G. (1984) Airblast Parameters from TNT Spherical Air Burst and Hemispherical Surface Burst. Report ARBL-TR-02555, U.S. Army BRL, Aberdeen Proving Ground, MD.

Lam, N., Mendis, P. & Ngo, T. (2004) Responce Spectrum Solutions for Blast Loading. Electronic Journal of Structural Engineering, 4.

May, I. M., Chen, Y., Owen, D. R. Y., Feng, Y. T. & Thiele, P. J. (2006) Reinforced concrete beams under drop-weight impact loads. Computers & Concrete, 3, 79-90.

Ngo, T., Mendis, P., Gupta, A. & Ramsay, J. (2007) Blast Loading and Blast Effects on Structures – An Overview. EJSE International, 76-91.

Philips, H., Cates, A., Catlin, C. A., Edmondson, N., Goose, M., Merrifield, R., Moreton, P. A., Pritchard, D. K. & Thomas, G. O. (1994) Explosions in the process industries, Institution of Chemical Engineers, Rugby.

Remennikov, A. M. The state of the art of explosive loads characterisation. University of Wollongong, Australia.

Rockfield ELFEN Explicit User Manual Version 3.8. . Technium, Swansea, UK.

Surasit, P. (2008) Fire Supression Failure Analysis On Substation Transformer Case Study Of Metropolitan Electricity Authority. Safety Department, Metropolitan Electricity Authority (MEA),Bangkok, Thailand.

TNB (2005) Increase Transformer Capacity at PMU Jengka & PMU Jerantut under Contract No. TNB 586/2005.

USA Department of the Army, N., and Air Force (1990) TM 5-1300, The Design of Structures to Resist the Effects of Accidental Explosions.

______________ *Corresponding author. Tel: 603-26154543; Fax: 603-26934844 *Email address: [email protected]

Laboratory Testing on Permanent Deformation of Grooved Concrete Block Pavement Azman Mohamed1*, Hasanan Md Nor2, Mohd Rosli Hainin2, Haryati Yaacob2, Che Ros Ismail2, Nur Hafizah Abd Khalid3

1 Department of Civil Engineering, Razak School of Engineering and Advanced Technology, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, International Campus,

Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia

2 Department of Geotechnics and Transportation, Faculty of Civil Engineering, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, Johor, Malaysia 3.Department of Structure and Materials, Faculty of Civil Engineering, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, Johor, Malaysia ________________________________________________________________________________

____________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ______________________ _____________________________________________________________________

1. Introduction Recently, many researchers are increasing their efforts in explaining the behavior of full-scale concrete block pavement (CBP) prototype under load chosen to simulate truck wheel loads. These loads can be further categorized into three categories: static or repeated-load test on prototype pavement, observation of actual concrete block pavement under real traffic, and accelerated trafficking tests of prototype pavements (Ling, 2008). The pavement may carry dynamic loads with a variety of vehicles whose configurations vary over a wide range. Accelerated trafficking tests have also been used to compare the performance of CBPs installed in herringbone, stretcher and basket weave bonds (Shackel, 1980). The largest deformation is found in pavements laid in stretcher bond patterns, particularly when the bond lines lay along rather than across the direction of traffic (Ling, 2008). Ling et al. (2006) mentioned that the function of the first Malaysian accelerated loading facility, known as Highway Accelerated Loading Instrument (HALI), is to

evaluate the structural performance of CBPs, the pavement design assumption, and to investigate the relationship between vehicle loading condition and the deterioration of pavement. To evaluate the pavement design assumption, the data describing the long term performance of pavement need to be collected. The distribution of stresses, strains and displacement in the pavement structure are affected by a number of factors which include paver shape, size, thickness, laying pattern, and bedding sand (Panda and Ghosh, 2002). 2. Background Many accelerated pavement loading devices have been developed ranging from full-scale to prototype devices which can be operated and controlled under laboratory conditions (Shackel, 1979 and Shackel, 1980). This paper discusses the experimental results relating to the performance of different Grooved Concrete Blocks (GCB) using HALI.

Keywords: Grooved concrete block Rut Deformation


Geo-Environmental



The aim of this study was to investigate the permanent deformation in concrete block pavement with the underside surface grooved. The effects of geometrically grooving the blocks were studied. To begin, 13 Grooved Concrete Blocks (GCB) which were grouped into four categories were manufactured in the laboratory and examined under permanent deformation development using the Highway Accelerated Loading Instrument (HALI). The pavement model constructed had 70 mm thick loose bedding sand and the paving blocks were filled with jointing sand. The test pavement was subjected to 10,000 rounds of load repetition under 1,000 kg single wheel load. The pavement was examined through transverse deformation profile, average rut depth in the wheel path, and longitudinal rut profile. Results indicated that the groove depth and GCB type influence the rut depth and bedding sand settlement when the number of load repetition increases. Grooving also significantly reduced the pavement deformation performance. Thus, GCB has a great potential to be applied on roads according to traffic volume and type of pavement application.


36

3. Materials and Experimental Programme 3.1 Materials The GCBs were manufactured in laboratory. The length, width and thickness of all concrete blocks were 200 mm, 100 mm and 80 mm, respectively with the length to width ratio set as 2 (BS 6717-1, 1993 and Interpave, 2006). All GCBs were grooved on the underside surface. The groove patterns can be divided into four categories: Hole Groove-Rectangular (HG-Rh), Trench Groove-Triangular (TG-Th), Trench Groove- Rectangular (TG-Rh), and Trench Groove- 2Rectangular (TG-2Rh). The symbol ‘h’ refers to groove depth. Figure 1 and Table 1show the geometry detail of 13 groove types and control block (CB) used in this experiment.

h

ed Ld LLeTG-Rh

R = Rectangular Groove

100 mm80 mm200 mm

Stretcher surfaceHeadersurface

Control Block (CB)

h

ed Ld LLeTG-Th

T = Triangular Groove

eLeHG-Rh


h

Figure 1: CB and GCBs used in the test 3.2 Test Setup During accelerated pavement loading test, a pavement track model was prepared. A sheet of hard neoprene with thickness of 3 mm was laid and fixed into the 0.9 m x 5.5 m test bed of HALI. GCB pavement with dimension of 200 mm x 100 mm x 80 mm, the loose bedding sand with thickness of 70 mm and jointing sand were prepared to form the pavement track model for accelerated testing as shown in Figure 2. In this experiment, the GCBs were laid in stretcher bond pattern into three sets of pavement track (Azman et al., 2011). Two sets of the pavement track consisted of five GCB types and one set consisted of four GCB types; all measured at 0.9 m x 0.9 m. The GCBs were compacted using a vibrating plate compactor

with 800 N static weight vibrating at a frequency of 3,000 rpm. Grid lines were marked along the pavement track length and width at a distance of 220 mm between 22 lines and 100 mm apart between 9 lines respectively. The detailed layout of grid points for the HALI test setup is shown schematically in Figure 3.

HALI was programmed to a constant speed of 0.25 m/s @ 0.91 km/h and it worked continuously until it achieved 300 load repetitions per hour. The simulation of traffic load was done by setting the wheel load to 1,000 kg as axle load. The instrument ran up to 10,000 load repetitions for a complete trafficking process. 3.3 Test Procedures Initially, the bedding sand thickness and concrete block level after laid and compacted were measured. Then, the rut depth and permanent deformation after HALI testing were measured with reference to a fix datum after 100 to 2,000 repetitions to a maximum repetition of 10,000 rounds. Low Voltage Displacement Transducer (LVDT) was used to record the data at reference points to measure the deformation of pavement after the commencement of the accelerated trafficking test. The process was repeated for three times and the average of the measured data was reported as the result in graphical form. The range of the Standard Deviation (SD) of the data is shown in respective figures. Additionally, the permanent deformation was also analyzed and obtained in three-dimensional (3D) model and two-dimensional (2D) model from the SURFER computer program (Mills et al., 2001). 4. Results and Discussions 4.1 Effect of GCB to Rut Depth in the Wheel Path Figure 4 shows that rutting occurred as a result of GCB movement under repeated traffic loading and this led to major structural failures. The overall trend shows that the GCB pavement had increased nonlinear deflection when there were more load repetitions. The results also indicated that GCBs with groove category of TG-R and HG-R showed decreasing rut depth, while the TG-T groove category showed increasing rut depth as compared to CB. However, the groove category of HG-R had the least rut depth.


36

3. Materials and Experimental Programme 3.1 Materials The GCBs were manufactured in laboratory. The length, width and thickness of all concrete blocks were 200 mm, 100 mm and 80 mm, respectively with the length to width ratio set as 2 (BS 6717-1, 1993 and Interpave, 2006). All GCBs were grooved on the underside surface. The groove patterns can be divided into four categories: Hole Groove-Rectangular (HG-Rh), Trench Groove-Triangular (TG-Th), Trench Groove- Rectangular (TG-Rh), and Trench Groove- 2Rectangular (TG-2Rh). The symbol ‘h’ refers to groove depth. Figure 1 and Table 1show the geometry detail of 13 groove types and control block (CB) used in this experiment.

h

ed Ld LLeTG-Rh


100 mm80 mm200 mm

Stretcher surfaceHeadersurface

Control Block (CB)

h

ed Ld LLeTG-Th

T = Triangular Groove

eLeHG-Rh


h

Figure 1: CB and GCBs used in the test 3.2 Test Setup During accelerated pavement loading test, a pavement track model was prepared. A sheet of hard neoprene with thickness of 3 mm was laid and fixed into the 0.9 m x 5.5 m test bed of HALI. GCB pavement with dimension of 200 mm x 100 mm x 80 mm, the loose bedding sand with thickness of 70 mm and jointing sand were prepared to form the pavement track model for accelerated testing as shown in Figure 2. In this experiment, the GCBs were laid in stretcher bond pattern into three sets of pavement track (Azman et al., 2011). Two sets of the pavement track consisted of five GCB types and one set consisted of four GCB types; all measured at 0.9 m x 0.9 m. The GCBs were compacted using a vibrating plate compactor

with 800 N static weight vibrating at a frequency of 3,000 rpm. Grid lines were marked along the pavement track length and width at a distance of 220 mm between 22 lines and 100 mm apart between 9 lines respectively. The detailed layout of grid points for the HALI test setup is shown schematically in Figure 3.

HALI was programmed to a constant speed of 0.25 m/s @ 0.91 km/h and it worked continuously until it achieved 300 load repetitions per hour. The simulation of traffic load was done by setting the wheel load to 1,000 kg as axle load. The instrument ran up to 10,000 load repetitions for a complete trafficking process. 3.3 Test Procedures Initially, the bedding sand thickness and concrete block level after laid and compacted were measured. Then, the rut depth and permanent deformation after HALI testing were measured with reference to a fix datum after 100 to 2,000 repetitions to a maximum repetition of 10,000 rounds. Low Voltage Displacement Transducer (LVDT) was used to record the data at reference points to measure the deformation of pavement after the commencement of the accelerated trafficking test. The process was repeated for three times and the average of the measured data was reported as the result in graphical form. The range of the Standard Deviation (SD) of the data is shown in respective figures. Additionally, the permanent deformation was also analyzed and obtained in three-dimensional (3D) model and two-dimensional (2D) model from the SURFER computer program (Mills et al., 2001). 4. Results and Discussions 4.1 Effect of GCB to Rut Depth in the Wheel Path Figure 4 shows that rutting occurred as a result of GCB movement under repeated traffic loading and this led to major structural failures. The overall trend shows that the GCB pavement had increased nonlinear deflection when there were more load repetitions. The results also indicated that GCBs with groove category of TG-R and HG-R showed decreasing rut depth, while the TG-T groove category showed increasing rut depth as compared to CB. However, the groove category of HG-R had the least rut depth.

Laboratory Testing on Permanent Deformation of Grooved Concrete Block Pavement

37

GCB Type

GrooveWidth,

B (mm)

GrooveLength,

L (mm)

GrooveDepth,

h (mm)

Number of

Grooves

Distance Between Grooves,

d (mm)

Edge Length,

e (mm)

Groove Volume,

VG (cm3)

Block Volume,

VB (cm3)

Average Block

Weight (kg)

CB 0 1600.0 3.558 HG - R35 60 160 35 1 0 20 341.5 1258.5 2.754 HG - R25 60 160 25 1 0 20 245.5 1354.5 2.940 HG - R15 60 160 15 1 0 20 149.5 1450.5 3.168 TG - T35 100 40 35 3 20 20 210.0 1390.0 3.167 TG - T30 100 40 30 3 20 20 180.0 1420.0 3.143 TG - T25 100 40 25 3 20 20 150.0 1450.0 3.272 TG - T15 100 40 15 3 20 20 90.0 1510.0 3.389 TG - R35 100 30 35 3 30 20 315.0 1285.0 2.729 TG - R25 100 30 25 3 30 20 225.0 1375.0 2.972 TG - R15 100 30 15 3 30 20 135.0 1465.0 3.026 TG-2R35 100 140 35 2 20 20 462.0 1138.0 2.654 TG-2R25 100 140 25 2 20 20 322.0 1278.0 2.906 TG-2R15 100 140 15 2 20 20 182.0 1418.0 3.140

Table 1: GCB groove shape dimensions

Figure 3: Grid points of test setup for HALI

Decreasing rut depth indicated that the bedding sand

‘settled-in’ after maximum load repetition. The result also showed that lesser rut depth was due to thinner bed thickness and more compact bedding sand. Increase in rut depth for the TG-T groove category was due to the bedding sand which ‘settled-in’, as reflected by higher pavement displacement. From Figure 3, the groove category of HG-R had the least rut depth, which meant that this category had the highest resilience to carry movement load. Additionally, it is established that GCB having lesser rut depth exhibit stiffer pavement when there is an increase in the number of load repetitions (Ling at al., 2009).

4.2 Transverse GCB Pavement Deformation Figure 5 shows the results of transverse wheel track rutting/cross-section profile loaded with standard single wide tyre. This figure was obtained from trafficking test of 10,000 load repetitions. Each result is depicted in the mean of three cross-section transverse profiles. As expected, most rutting occurred under the wheel path and heaves at each sides of the wheel track increased with increasing number of load repetition. The total average minimum and maximum rut depth in the wheel path after 10,000 load repetitions were 6.07 mm (type HG-R35) and 15.76 mm (type TG-T15), respectively. From observation, both sides had almost the same heave level.

Figure 2: Pavement track model setup


38

The rut develops when there is a distribution of stress

from the tyre pressure to GCBs after repeated compaction (load repetition). Lesser rut depth shows better GCB performance and vice versa. It is clearly seen that the groove category of HG-R is the best among others. Thus, it can be concluded that groove size with 35 mm depth together with its shape significantly influenced the rut performance. 4.3 Three-dimensional and Two-dimensional View of Deformed Pavement Three-dimensional (3D) and two-dimensional (2D) views of deformed surface were obtained using the SURFER computer program, as shown in Figure 6 and Figure 7,

respectively. These graphs are important to investigate the development of deformation after load repetitions.

Figure 6(a)-(c) shows that heaving occurred after 10,000 load repetitions in the whole cross sections of pavement with different block types. The heave formed when the paving blocks transferred the external load to adjacent blocks. The deformation was clearly visualized by 2D contour views as shown in Figure 7(a)-(c). The darkness of contours shows the deformation intensity; darker lines reveals more serious deformation and vice versa. Table 2 shows the maximum and minimum permanent deformation achieved under the 10,000 load repetition.

Table 2: Maximum and minimum of pavement deformation with different types of grooving pattern

Groove Type Deformation (mm)

Maximum Minimum CB -18.39 1.90

HG-R15 -12.52 3.79 HG-R25 -7.01 4.14 HG-R35 -8.28 3.70 TG-T15 -16.57 1.60 TG-T25 -18.13 2.61 TG-T30 -16.62 6.61 TG-T35 -16.14 3.55 TG-R15 -13.28 4.29 TG-R25 -12.74 4.07 TG-R35 -13.60 3.17

TG-2R15 -15.11 2.69 TG-2R25 -9.88 1.68 TG-2R35 -8.21 4.07

SD = 0.13 mm – 4.95 mm

Figure 4: Average rut depth of test pavement for different block types after up to 10,000 load repetitions

Figure 5: Transverse deformation profiles after 10,000 load repetitions


38

The rut develops when there is a distribution of stress

from the tyre pressure to GCBs after repeated compaction (load repetition). Lesser rut depth shows better GCB performance and vice versa. It is clearly seen that the groove category of HG-R is the best among others. Thus, it can be concluded that groove size with 35 mm depth together with its shape significantly influenced the rut performance. 4.3 Three-dimensional and Two-dimensional View of Deformed Pavement Three-dimensional (3D) and two-dimensional (2D) views of deformed surface were obtained using the SURFER computer program, as shown in Figure 6 and Figure 7,

respectively. These graphs are important to investigate the development of deformation after load repetitions.

Figure 6(a)-(c) shows that heaving occurred after 10,000 load repetitions in the whole cross sections of pavement with different block types. The heave formed when the paving blocks transferred the external load to adjacent blocks. The deformation was clearly visualized by 2D contour views as shown in Figure 7(a)-(c). The darkness of contours shows the deformation intensity; darker lines reveals more serious deformation and vice versa. Table 2 shows the maximum and minimum permanent deformation achieved under the 10,000 load repetition.

Table 2: Maximum and minimum of pavement deformation with different types of grooving pattern

Groove Type Deformation (mm)

Maximum Minimum CB -18.39 1.90

HG-R15 -12.52 3.79 HG-R25 -7.01 4.14 HG-R35 -8.28 3.70 TG-T15 -16.57 1.60 TG-T25 -18.13 2.61 TG-T30 -16.62 6.61 TG-T35 -16.14 3.55 TG-R15 -13.28 4.29 TG-R25 -12.74 4.07 TG-R35 -13.60 3.17

TG-2R15 -15.11 2.69 TG-2R25 -9.88 1.68 TG-2R35 -8.21 4.07

SD = 0.13 mm – 4.95 mm

Figure 4: Average rut depth of test pavement for different block types after up to 10,000 load repetitions

Figure 5: Transverse deformation profiles after 10,000 load repetitions

Laboratory Testing on Permanent Deformation of Grooved Concrete Block Pavement

39

The results showed that the lesser the groove volume, the higher the deformation under wheel path. This was evidenced through the performance of CB and TG-T. However, generally, all groove types had lesser deformation compared to CB, except for TG-T25. Thus, it is clear that the deformation of pavement widely depends on the groove volume; concrete block without groove or has lesser groove volume gives higher deformation.

In conclusion, the HG-R groove category had the least deformation as its underlying layers had been fully compacted and no energy was lost during additional loadings. Therefore, it is established that block pavement stiffens progressively with an increase in load repetitions. Additionally, the un-trafficked adjacent blocks on the side of the wheel track were also influenced by the excessive deformation in the wheel paths when the load repetition achieved 10,000 rounds for all categories.

Figure 6:. 3D view of deformed pavement

TG-T30

HG-R35

HG-R25

HG-R15

CB

TG-T35

TG-2R25

TG-T25

TG-T15

TG-2R15

TG-2R35

TG-R35

TG-R25

TG-R15

(a) (b) (c)

50 250 450 650 850

1000

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HG-R35

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CB

TG-T35

TG-2R25

TG-T25

TG-T15

TG-2R15

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5

TG-2R35

TG-R35

TG-R25

TG-R15

(a) (b) (c)

Figure 7: 2D view of deformed pavement


40

5. Conclusions The conclusions that can be drawn based on the results from the experiment are as follows:

The geometry of GCB, especially the grooves depth and groove size, has significant influence on the pavement deformation.

Heave at each side of the wheel track increased with increasing number of load repetition and this happened due to excessive load transfer from wheel to adjacent blocks.

The groove category of HG-R performed the best with the least deformation under maximum load repetition.

HG-R35 produced the lowest rut depth among all HG-R categories.

Increasing the groove depth led to lesser rut. The GCB tends to slant when the load repetition

increases. Additionally, the deformation of pavement occurred along the longitudinal and transverse pavements simultaneously when there were more load repetitions.

When the underlying layer had been fully compacted, only minimal deformation would occur and no energy would be lost during additional loadings.

Acknowledgement The authors are grateful thanks to the Ministry of Higher Education (MOHE) and Universiti Teknologi Malaysia (UTM) for sponsoring the Research University Grant (RUG) under vote number of Q.J130000.7122.00H93 for this project. References

Ling, T.C. (2008) Engineering Properties And Structural

Performance of Rubberized Concrete Paving Blocks. Ph.D. Thesis, University Teknologi Malaysia, Skudai, 159 – 190.

Shackel, B. 1980. A Study of the Performance of Block Paving Under Traffic Using A Heavy Vehicle Simulator. Proceeding Australia Road Research, 10:2,19- 30.

Ling, T.C., Hasanan Md Nor, Mohd Rosli Hainin & Ming-Fai Chow, 2006. Highway Accelerated Loading Instrument (HALI) For Concrete Block Pavement. Proceeding of Civil Engineering Research Seminar, Paper No. GH-2.

Panda, B. C. & Ghosh, A. K. (2002). Structural behavior of concrete block paving. I : sand in bed and joints. Journal of Transportation Engineering, 128 (2): 123-129.

Shackel, B. 1979. A pilot study of the performance of block paving under traffic using a heavy vehicle simulator. In: Proceeding of symposium on precast concrete paving blocks.

Shackel, B. 1980. The performance of interlocking block pavements under accelerated trafficking. In: Proceeding of 1st international conference on concrete block paving, September 2 – 5, 115 – 120.

British Standards Institution (BS) (1993) Precast Concrete Paving Blocks. Specification for Paving Blocks. (BS 6717: Part 1) : London.

The Precast Concrete Paving & Kerb Association (Interpave) (2006) Specification of Concrete Block Paving. 60 Charles Street, Leicester LE1 1FB, UK.

Azman Mohamed, Shakira Abdul Aziz, Hasanan Md Nor, Mohd Rosli Hainin, Haryati Yaacob and Che Ros Ismail, 2011. The Effect of Laying Patterns On Underside Shaped Concrete Block Pavement Horizontal Resistance. Research Seminar In Civil Engineering (SEPKA), UTM Skudai Johor, 477 – 483.

Mills, J. P., Newton, I. and Pierson, G. C. (2001). Pavement deformation monitoring in a rolling load facility. Photogrammetric Record, 17 (97): 7 – 24.

Ling, T.C., Hasanan Md Nor, Mohd Rosli Hainin & Abdul Aziz Chik, (2009). Laboratory performance of crumb rubber concrete block pavement. International Journal of Pavement Engineering, 10:5, 361 - 374.


40

5. Conclusions The conclusions that can be drawn based on the results from the experiment are as follows:

The geometry of GCB, especially the grooves depth and groove size, has significant influence on the pavement deformation.

Heave at each side of the wheel track increased with increasing number of load repetition and this happened due to excessive load transfer from wheel to adjacent blocks.

The groove category of HG-R performed the best with the least deformation under maximum load repetition.

HG-R35 produced the lowest rut depth among all HG-R categories.

Increasing the groove depth led to lesser rut. The GCB tends to slant when the load repetition

increases. Additionally, the deformation of pavement occurred along the longitudinal and transverse pavements simultaneously when there were more load repetitions.

When the underlying layer had been fully compacted, only minimal deformation would occur and no energy would be lost during additional loadings.

Acknowledgement The authors are grateful thanks to the Ministry of Higher Education (MOHE) and Universiti Teknologi Malaysia (UTM) for sponsoring the Research University Grant (RUG) under vote number of Q.J130000.7122.00H93 for this project. References

Ling, T.C. (2008) Engineering Properties And Structural

Performance of Rubberized Concrete Paving Blocks. Ph.D. Thesis, University Teknologi Malaysia, Skudai, 159 – 190.

Shackel, B. 1980. A Study of the Performance of Block Paving Under Traffic Using A Heavy Vehicle Simulator. Proceeding Australia Road Research, 10:2,19- 30.

Ling, T.C., Hasanan Md Nor, Mohd Rosli Hainin & Ming-Fai Chow, 2006. Highway Accelerated Loading Instrument (HALI) For Concrete Block Pavement. Proceeding of Civil Engineering Research Seminar, Paper No. GH-2.

Panda, B. C. & Ghosh, A. K. (2002). Structural behavior of concrete block paving. I : sand in bed and joints. Journal of Transportation Engineering, 128 (2): 123-129.

Shackel, B. 1979. A pilot study of the performance of block paving under traffic using a heavy vehicle simulator. In: Proceeding of symposium on precast concrete paving blocks.

Shackel, B. 1980. The performance of interlocking block pavements under accelerated trafficking. In: Proceeding of 1st international conference on concrete block paving, September 2 – 5, 115 – 120.

British Standards Institution (BS) (1993) Precast Concrete Paving Blocks. Specification for Paving Blocks. (BS 6717: Part 1) : London.

The Precast Concrete Paving & Kerb Association (Interpave) (2006) Specification of Concrete Block Paving. 60 Charles Street, Leicester LE1 1FB, UK.

Azman Mohamed, Shakira Abdul Aziz, Hasanan Md Nor, Mohd Rosli Hainin, Haryati Yaacob and Che Ros Ismail, 2011. The Effect of Laying Patterns On Underside Shaped Concrete Block Pavement Horizontal Resistance. Research Seminar In Civil Engineering (SEPKA), UTM Skudai Johor, 477 – 483.

Mills, J. P., Newton, I. and Pierson, G. C. (2001). Pavement deformation monitoring in a rolling load facility. Photogrammetric Record, 17 (97): 7 – 24.

Ling, T.C., Hasanan Md Nor, Mohd Rosli Hainin & Abdul Aziz Chik, (2009). Laboratory performance of crumb rubber concrete block pavement. International Journal of Pavement Engineering, 10:5, 361 - 374.

Sewage Water Treatment by Electrocoagulation Process

1

Sewage Water Treatment by Electrocoagulation Process Mohd Nasrullah , Zularisam Ab. Wahid, Fadzil Mat Yahaya Faculty of Civil Engineering & Earth Resources, Universiti Malaysia Pahang, Malaysia ________________________________________________________________________________

____________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ________________________ ___________________________________________________________________

1. Introduction The natural resources of Malaysia are limited, and as such the use and reuse of water is becoming an increasing concern. Water pollutant nowadays become tribulation for mankind as well as aquatic life because of their various contents. Although wastewaters can be composed of various sources, but sewage water have become one of the major source contribute to groundwater and surface water pollution associated with the developing countries. Sewage is composed of human body wastes (faeces and urine) and sullage which comes from the personal bathing, laundries, cooking and washing of the kitchen dishes (Mara, 1976). Currently, sewage is generally treated by aerated biological methods. Activated sludge, being the most popular method, produces high quality effluent—90% biological oxygen demand BOD and SS removal (Metcalf and Eddy, 2003). But this commonly used method has some disadvantages, such as requiring continuous air supply, high operating costs (skilled labor, energy, etc.), sensitivity against shock toxic loads, longer treatment time, and necessary sludge disposal. From an environmental point of view, the sewage treatment process is still far from being environmentally sustainable. Based on a desk study, a structural approach is given on how to achieve a more sustainable treatment process. Due to the limitations of the primary and biological wastewater treatment processes, alternative processes have been pursued. Amongst them, electrochemical treatment seems to be a promising

treatment method due to its high effectiveness and they have received increasing attention in the last years because of its lower maintenance cost, less need for labor and rapid achievement of results (Feng et al., 2003). EC involves dissolution of metal from the anode with simultaneous formation of hydroxyl ions and hydrogen gas occurring at the cathode. The hydroxide flocculates and coagulates the suspended solids purifying the water. EC treatment is investigated, as it has greater ability for the removal of COD and SS from effluents in comparison with treatment by conventional coagulation (Jiang et al., 2002). It is clear that EC has the capability to remove a large range of pollutants under a variety of conditions ranging from: suspended solids (Nasrullah et al., 2012); colour from dye- containing solution (Kobya et al., 2006); heavy metals (Akbal and Camcı, 2011); food industries (Zheng and Chen, 2010); aquatic humus (Vik et al., 1984); and tannery wastewater (Jing-wei et al., 2007). A variety of designs have been employed with no dominant design. Often the EC units are used simply as a replacement for chemical dosing systems and do not take advantage of the electrolytic gases produced in the EC process.

Keywords: Electrocoagulation Sewage water Current densities pH COD BOD SS


Geo-Environmental

Journal homepage:http://ijceg.ump.edu.my ISSN:


Treatment of wastewater from sewage water by electrocoagulation (EC) was investigated. Experiments were conducted to determine the optimum operating conditions such as electrode type, pH, current density and operation time. Aluminium and mild steel electrodes were used, and aluminium electrodes were found to be more suitable since it had a higher removal rate of Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD), Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD) and Suspended Solids (SS) than the mild steel electrode. The removal efficiencies of COD and BOD and SS were high, being 92.5%, 91.5% and 90.5%, respectively, with retention time 60 minutes. pH range between 3 to 11 was investigated during EC process and the optimum condition for pH was 7. Low current densities of 4.17 mA/cm2, 8.33 mA/cm2, 12.5 mA/cm2, 20.83 mA/cm2 and 25 mA/cm2 have been used in this experiment and the optimum current density of 25 mA/cm2 was obtained.


42

2. Experimental 2.1. Wastewater samples Wastewater was obtained from a tank containing a mixture of the raw sewage water solutions at the sewage water treatment pond in IWK Indera Mahkota, Kuantan, Pahang (Malaysia). The composition of the raw sewage water is shown in Table 1.

Characteristic Value

pH 7.6

COD 466 mg/l

BOD 259 mg/l

SS 297 mg/l

Table 1. Characteristic of raw sewage water 2.2. Experimental device The batch experimental setup is schematically shown in Fig. 1. The EC unit consists of an electrochemical reactor, a D.C. power supply and iron electrodes. The electrodes consist of pieces of sheet mild steel or aluminum separated by a space of 2.5cm and dipped in the wastewater. The electrodes were placed into 600ml wastewater in a 1l plexiglass electrolytic reactor. There were four electrodes connected in a monopolar mode in the electrochemical reactor, each one with dimensions of 12 cm × 10 cm × 0.2 cm. The submerged surface area of the electrode plates was 240cm2. The stirrer was used in the electrochemical cell and was set at 100rpm to maintain an unchanged composition and avoid the association of the flocs in the solution. Regulated D.C Power Supply (EDU-LABS TPR-3030D; 30V / 30 A) was used to power supply the system with 0–15V and 0–3A. Electrodes were washed with dilute HCl between the experiments. Experiments were conducted at 250C.

Fig. 1. Bench-scale EC reactor with bipolar electrodes in parallel connection. (1) EC cell; (2) anode; (3) cathode; (4) bipolar electrodes; (5) stirrer; (6) D.C. power supply. At the beginning of a run the sewage water was fed into the reactor and the pH was adjusted to a desired value using HCl, NaOH solutions. The electrodes were placed

into the reactor. The reaction was timed, starting when the D.C. power supply was switched on. One of the greatest operational issues with EC is electrode passivation. During EC with electrodes, an oxide layer was formed at the anode. Eliminating the oxide formation at the anode could reduce this effect. For this reason, the electrodes were rinsed in the diluted HCl solution after the each experiment. Samples were periodically taken from the reactor. The particulates of colloidal ferric oxyhydroxides gave yellow–brown color into the solution after EC. The sedimentation was filtrated with normal filter paper. Standard Methods for Examination of water and wastewater were adopted for quantitative estimation of pH, COD, BOD and SS (APHA, 1992). All the experiments were repeated twice, and the experimental error was below 5%, the average data were reported. If iron or aluminum electrodes are used, the generated Fe(aq)3+or Al(aq)3+ ions will immediately undergo further spontaneous reactions to produce corresponding hydroxides and/or polyhydroxides. The Fe(II) ions are the common ions generated the dissolution of iron. In contrast, OH− ions are produced at the cathode. By mixing the solution, hydroxide species are produced which cause the removal of matrices (suspended and cations) by adsorption and co precipitation. 2.3.1. Iron electrodes In the study of iron anodes, two mechanisms for the production of the metal hydroxides have been proposed (Mollah et al., 2004; Chen, 2004): Mechanism 1 pH<4 anode : 4Fe(s) → 4Fe(aq)

2+ + 8e−

(1)

bulk of solution : 4Fe(aq)

2+ + 10H2O(l) + O2(aq) → 4Fe(OH)3(s) + 8H(aq)

+

(2)

cathode : 8H(aq)

+ + 8e−→ 4H2(g)

(3)

overall : 4Fe(s) +10H2O(l) +O2(aq) → 4Fe(OH)3(s) +4H2(g)

(4)

4<pH<7 anode : 4Fe(s) +24H2O(l)→ 4Fe(H2O)4(OH)2(aq)+8H(aq)

++8e−

(5)

bulk of solution : 4Fe(H2O)4(OH)2(aq) +O2(aq) → 4Fe(H2O)3(OH)3(s) +2H2O(l)

(6)


42

2. Experimental 2.1. Wastewater samples Wastewater was obtained from a tank containing a mixture of the raw sewage water solutions at the sewage water treatment pond in IWK Indera Mahkota, Kuantan, Pahang (Malaysia). The composition of the raw sewage water is shown in Table 1.

Characteristic Value

pH 7.6

COD 466 mg/l

BOD 259 mg/l

SS 297 mg/l

Table 1. Characteristic of raw sewage water 2.2. Experimental device The batch experimental setup is schematically shown in Fig. 1. The EC unit consists of an electrochemical reactor, a D.C. power supply and iron electrodes. The electrodes consist of pieces of sheet mild steel or aluminum separated by a space of 2.5cm and dipped in the wastewater. The electrodes were placed into 600ml wastewater in a 1l plexiglass electrolytic reactor. There were four electrodes connected in a monopolar mode in the electrochemical reactor, each one with dimensions of 12 cm × 10 cm × 0.2 cm. The submerged surface area of the electrode plates was 240cm2. The stirrer was used in the electrochemical cell and was set at 100rpm to maintain an unchanged composition and avoid the association of the flocs in the solution. Regulated D.C Power Supply (EDU-LABS TPR-3030D; 30V / 30 A) was used to power supply the system with 0–15V and 0–3A. Electrodes were washed with dilute HCl between the experiments. Experiments were conducted at 250C.

Fig. 1. Bench-scale EC reactor with bipolar electrodes in parallel connection. (1) EC cell; (2) anode; (3) cathode; (4) bipolar electrodes; (5) stirrer; (6) D.C. power supply. At the beginning of a run the sewage water was fed into the reactor and the pH was adjusted to a desired value using HCl, NaOH solutions. The electrodes were placed

into the reactor. The reaction was timed, starting when the D.C. power supply was switched on. One of the greatest operational issues with EC is electrode passivation. During EC with electrodes, an oxide layer was formed at the anode. Eliminating the oxide formation at the anode could reduce this effect. For this reason, the electrodes were rinsed in the diluted HCl solution after the each experiment. Samples were periodically taken from the reactor. The particulates of colloidal ferric oxyhydroxides gave yellow–brown color into the solution after EC. The sedimentation was filtrated with normal filter paper. Standard Methods for Examination of water and wastewater were adopted for quantitative estimation of pH, COD, BOD and SS (APHA, 1992). All the experiments were repeated twice, and the experimental error was below 5%, the average data were reported. If iron or aluminum electrodes are used, the generated Fe(aq)3+or Al(aq)3+ ions will immediately undergo further spontaneous reactions to produce corresponding hydroxides and/or polyhydroxides. The Fe(II) ions are the common ions generated the dissolution of iron. In contrast, OH− ions are produced at the cathode. By mixing the solution, hydroxide species are produced which cause the removal of matrices (suspended and cations) by adsorption and co precipitation. 2.3.1. Iron electrodes In the study of iron anodes, two mechanisms for the production of the metal hydroxides have been proposed (Mollah et al., 2004; Chen, 2004): Mechanism 1 pH<4 anode : 4Fe(s) → 4Fe(aq)

2+ + 8e−

(1)

bulk of solution : 4Fe(aq)

2+ + 10H2O(l) + O2(aq) → 4Fe(OH)3(s) + 8H(aq)

+

(2)

cathode : 8H(aq)

+ + 8e−→ 4H2(g)

(3)

overall : 4Fe(s) +10H2O(l) +O2(aq) → 4Fe(OH)3(s) +4H2(g)

(4)

4<pH<7 anode : 4Fe(s) +24H2O(l)→ 4Fe(H2O)4(OH)2(aq)+8H(aq)

++8e−

(5)

bulk of solution : 4Fe(H2O)4(OH)2(aq) +O2(aq) → 4Fe(H2O)3(OH)3(s) +2H2O(l)

(6)


43

bulk of solution: 4Fe(H2O)3(OH)3(s)→ 2Fe2O3(H2O)6(s) +6H2O

(7)

cathode : 8H(aq)

+ +8e- → 4H2(g)

(8)

overall : 4Fe(s) +16H2O(l) +O2(aq)→ 2Fe2O3(H2O)6(s) +4H2(g)

(9)

6<pH<9 Precipitation of Fe(III) hydroxide (7) continues, and Fe(II) hydroxide precipitation also occurs presenting a dark green floc. bulk of solution : 4Fe(H2O)4(OH)2(aq) → 4Fe(H2O)4(OH)2(s)

(10)

Mechanism 2 pH<4 anode : Fe(s)→ Fe2+

(aq) + 2e−

(11)

cathode : 2H+

(aq) + 2e−→ H2(g)

(12)

overall : Fe(s) + 2H+ → Fe2+

(aq) + H2(g) (13)

4<pH<9 anode : Fe(s) +6H2O(l)→ Fe(H2O)4(OH)2(aq)+2H(aq)

+ +2e−

(14)

bulk of solution : Fe(H2O)4(OH)2(aq)→ Fe(H2O)4(OH)2(s)

(15)

cathode : 2H(aq)+ +2e−→ H2(g)

(16)

overall : Fe(s) +6H2O(l)→ Fe(H2O)4(OH)2(s) +H2(g)

(17)

Mechanism 3 4<pH<9 anode : 2Fe(s) +12H2O(l) → 2Fe(H2O)3(OH)3(aq) +6H+

(aq)+ 6e−

(18)

bulk of solution : 2Fe(H2O)3(OH)3(aq) → 2Fe(H2O)3(OH)3(s)

(19)

bulk of solution : 2Fe(H2O)3(OH)3(s) → Fe2O3(H2O)6(s) +3H2O(l)

(20)

cathode : 6H(aq)

+ +6e− → 3H2(g)

(21)

overall : 2Fe(s) +12H2O(l) → Fe2O3(H2O)6(s) +3H2(g)

(22)

In the oxygenated water and at lower pH, Fe2+ is easily converted to Fe3+. The Fe(OH)n(s) formed remains in the aqueous stream as a gelatinous suspension, which can remove the waste matter from wastewater either by complexation or by electrostatic attraction followed by coagulation. Ferric ions electrogenerated may form monomeric ions, ferric hydroxo complexes with hydroxide ions and polymeric species, namely, Fe(H2O)6

3+, Fe(H2O)5OH2+, Fe(H2O)4(OH)2+,

Fe2(H2O)8(OH)24+, Fe2(H2O)6(OH)4

2+ and Fe(OH)4− depending on the pH range (Chen, 2004). The complexes (i.e. hydrolysis products) have a pronounced tendency to polymerize at pH 3.5–7.0 (Mollah et al., 2004; Chen, 2004). 2.3.2. Aluminum electrodes The generated Al3+ and OH− react with each other to form Al(OH)3 (Mollah et al., 2004; Chen, 2004): anode : Al(s) → Al3+

(aq) + 3e− (23)

cathode : 3H2O(l) +3e− → 3/2H2(g) + 3OH−

(aq)

(24)

overall : Al3+

(aq) + 3H2O(l) → Al(OH)3(s) (25)

The electrolytic dissolution of the aluminum anode produces the cationic monomeric species such as Al3+ and Al(OH)2+ at low pH, which at appropriate pH-values are transformed initially into Al(OH)3 and finally polymerized to Aln(OH)3n. nAl(OH)3→ Aln(OH)3n (26) 3. Results and discussion 3.1. Effect of electrode materials First of all, treatment of sewage water, by using mild steel and aluminum electrode materials was investigated. As shown from Fig. 2, there were no significant differences between mild steel electrodes and aluminum electrodes for the elimination of COD, BOD and SS under the same condition. By the way, as can be seen from the figure below, using aluminum electrode is a little bit more higher than by using mild steel in term of COD, BOD and SS removal efficiency and as a result,


44

aluminum electrodes are superior with respect to mild steel as sacrificial electrode material for treatment sewage water.

Fig. 2. Effect of electrode materials on treatment of sewage water (pH 7.6; C0,COD = 466 mg/l, C0, BOD = 259 mg/l, C0, SS = 297mg/l, i = 25mA/cm2, d = 2.5 cm, agiation speed = 100 rpm, time = 60 minutes). 3.2. Effect of initial pH It has been established that pH is an important parameter influencing the performance of the EC process (Chen, 2004). The effect of initial pH on the COD removal efficiency is presented in Fig. 3. High COD, BOD and SS removal percent may be attained in natural mediums. The efficiency with increasing pH at pH 3–11, maximum COD, BOD and SS removal attainable is 93.1%, 92.3% and 91.6% respectively using aluminum electrode.

Fig. 3. Effect of initial pH on the removal efficiency of sewage water (electrodes: Aluminum; pH 3-11; C0,COD = 466 mg/l, C0, BOD = 259 mg/l, C0, SS = 297mg/l, i = 25mA/cm2, d = 2.5 cm, agiation speed = 100 rpm, time = 60 minutes). Al(OH)2 form in acidity condition but so in alkali condition, Al(OH)3 are produced. Al(OH)3 and Al(OH)2 settle while, H2 moves upward and causes flotation. Since Al(OH)3 has higher weight and density, it settles faster and has higher efficiency. Therefore, it acts better in enmeshment in a precipitate where the flocs of

Aluminum Hydroxide acts as a blanket and brings all the stable suspended solid down while settling. Hence from the figure 3, it can be concluded that the optimum range for pH values appeared between 6 and 8 which will provide an economical and effective treatment for the sewage water in practical. 3.3. Effect of current density In all the EC process, current density is the most important parameter in controlling the reaction rate. From Fig. 4, it is apparent that the removal efficiency was improved continuously with increasing current density. 80.7%, 73.7% and 70.1% of COD, BOD and SS removal efficiency were obtained by using 4.17 mA/cm2 of current density and dramatically rise to 92.5%, 91.5% and 90.5% when the current density was change to 25 mA/cm2 in every 60 minutes of treatment. COD, BOD and SS removal by using 8.33 mA/cm2 resulted 85.4%, 80.3% and 79.12% respectively. For 12.5 mA/cm2, 88.2%, 84.9% and 84.2% was obtained for COD, BOD and SS respectively. While, by using 20.83 mA/cm2, the removal efficiency of COD, BOD and SS was 90.8%, 89.6% and 88.2% respectively. So the optimum of current density was 25mA/cm2. When the current density increases, the efficiency of ion production in anode and cathode also increase, leading to the floc production increment.

Fig. 4. Effect of current density on the removal efficiency of sewage water (electrodes: Aluminum; pH 7.6; C0,COD = 466 mg/l, C0, BOD = 259 mg/l, C0, SS = 297mg/l, d = 2.5 cm, agiation speed = 100 rpm, time = 60 minutes). 3.4. Effect of electrolysis time As shown in Fig. 5, as the time of electrolysis increases comparable changes in the removal efficiency of COD, BOD and SS are observed.


44

aluminum electrodes are superior with respect to mild steel as sacrificial electrode material for treatment sewage water.

Fig. 2. Effect of electrode materials on treatment of sewage water (pH 7.6; C0,COD = 466 mg/l, C0, BOD = 259 mg/l, C0, SS = 297mg/l, i = 25mA/cm2, d = 2.5 cm, agiation speed = 100 rpm, time = 60 minutes). 3.2. Effect of initial pH It has been established that pH is an important parameter influencing the performance of the EC process (Chen, 2004). The effect of initial pH on the COD removal efficiency is presented in Fig. 3. High COD, BOD and SS removal percent may be attained in natural mediums. The efficiency with increasing pH at pH 3–11, maximum COD, BOD and SS removal attainable is 93.1%, 92.3% and 91.6% respectively using aluminum electrode.

Fig. 3. Effect of initial pH on the removal efficiency of sewage water (electrodes: Aluminum; pH 3-11; C0,COD = 466 mg/l, C0, BOD = 259 mg/l, C0, SS = 297mg/l, i = 25mA/cm2, d = 2.5 cm, agiation speed = 100 rpm, time = 60 minutes). Al(OH)2 form in acidity condition but so in alkali condition, Al(OH)3 are produced. Al(OH)3 and Al(OH)2 settle while, H2 moves upward and causes flotation. Since Al(OH)3 has higher weight and density, it settles faster and has higher efficiency. Therefore, it acts better in enmeshment in a precipitate where the flocs of

Aluminum Hydroxide acts as a blanket and brings all the stable suspended solid down while settling. Hence from the figure 3, it can be concluded that the optimum range for pH values appeared between 6 and 8 which will provide an economical and effective treatment for the sewage water in practical. 3.3. Effect of current density In all the EC process, current density is the most important parameter in controlling the reaction rate. From Fig. 4, it is apparent that the removal efficiency was improved continuously with increasing current density. 80.7%, 73.7% and 70.1% of COD, BOD and SS removal efficiency were obtained by using 4.17 mA/cm2 of current density and dramatically rise to 92.5%, 91.5% and 90.5% when the current density was change to 25 mA/cm2 in every 60 minutes of treatment. COD, BOD and SS removal by using 8.33 mA/cm2 resulted 85.4%, 80.3% and 79.12% respectively. For 12.5 mA/cm2, 88.2%, 84.9% and 84.2% was obtained for COD, BOD and SS respectively. While, by using 20.83 mA/cm2, the removal efficiency of COD, BOD and SS was 90.8%, 89.6% and 88.2% respectively. So the optimum of current density was 25mA/cm2. When the current density increases, the efficiency of ion production in anode and cathode also increase, leading to the floc production increment.

Fig. 4. Effect of current density on the removal efficiency of sewage water (electrodes: Aluminum; pH 7.6; C0,COD = 466 mg/l, C0, BOD = 259 mg/l, C0, SS = 297mg/l, d = 2.5 cm, agiation speed = 100 rpm, time = 60 minutes). 3.4. Effect of electrolysis time As shown in Fig. 5, as the time of electrolysis increases comparable changes in the removal efficiency of COD, BOD and SS are observed.


45

Fig. 5. Effect of electrolysis time on the removal efficiency of sewage water (electrodes: Aluminum; pH 7.6; C0,COD = 466 mg/l, C0, BOD = 259 mg/l, C0, SS = 297mg/l, d = 2.5 cm, agiation speed = 100 rpm, time operating = 60 minutes). The role of operating time is very important in this treatment where the removal efficiency of the parameters depends directly on the concentration of hydroxyl and metal ions produced on the electrodes. As can be seen, the removal was dramatically increase in early 30 minutes and starts to rise slowly after that. After 60 minutes of electrolysis, COD, BOD and SS removal efficiency at pH 7.6 and 25mA/cm2 current density were 92.5%, 91.5% and 90.5%, respectively. 4. Conclusions This investigation has demonstrated that EC with aluminum electrodes is an effective method to clarify sewage water by reducing the COD, BOD and SS content of the wastewaters and will lead to reduce waste disposal costs for sewage treatment plant. EC is a feasible process for treating the sewage water, characterized by high COD, BOD and SS concentrations. The effect of various operational parameters on EC operation was investigated and optimized. The aluminum electrodes were more effective for the removal of COD, BOD and SS compared with the mild steel electrodes. The results showed that COD, BOD and SS was effectively removed at initial pH 7 when the initial concentration of COD, BOD and SS was 466mg/l and 259mg/l, and 297mg/l respectively. The results also indicated that the removal efficiency of the COD, BOD and SS was raised to 92.5%, 91.5% and 90.5%, respectively. The optimal current density for COD, BOD and SS removal was the same at 25mA/cm2 for an operating time of 60 minutes.

Reference

APHA. (1992). Standard Methods for Examination of Water and Wastewater, 17th ed. Washington, DC.

Akbal, F., & Camcı, S. (2011). Copper, chromium and nickel removal from metal plating wastewater by EC. Desalination, 269(1-3), 214–222.

Chen, G. (2004). Electrochemical technologies in wastewater treatment. Separation and Purification Technology, 38.

Feng, C., Suguira, N., Shimada, S., and Maekawa, T. (2003). Developement of a high performance electrochemical wastewater treatment system. Journal of Hazardous Materials, 103(1-2), 65–78.

Jiang,J.Q, Graham, N., Andre, C., Kelsall G.H., and Brandon, N. (2002). (2002). Laboratory study electro-coagulation—Flotation for water treatment. Water Research, 36, 4064.

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Engineering Properties of Concrete with Laterite Aggregate as Partial Coarse Aggregate Replacement Norul Wahida Kamaruzaman, Khairunisa Muthusamy* Faculty of Civil Engineering & Earth Resources, Universiti Malaysia Pahang, Malaysia ________________________________________________________________________________

____________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ______________________ ___________________________________________________________________

1. Introduction Quarry activities are the most important industry in the country as it supplies aggregates for concrete production which is widely used in construction industry. The main sources of aggregates in Malaysia are granite, and limestone in varies dimension and ornamental [1]. However, quarry activities have a direct impact on the environment [2] such as imbalance ecosystem. The main impact factors may differ from place to place and depend on the level of economic and social development of the areas [3]. Demand for these natural aggregate is projected to increase in tandem with economic growth which aspires to attain developed status in year 2020 [1].

Thus, continuous usage of natural aggregate leads to

the depletion of aggregate [4]. In year 2010, Mineralogy Department of Malaysia [5] revealed the aggregate production curve from 300 quarries all over Malaysia was reduced from 79,912,682 to 77,633,789 tonnes in year 2006 and 2007 whereas in year 2008 and 2009 the aggregate curve further declined from 75,883,000 to 75,000,000 [5]. This situation indicates that finding new material for concrete mix is very much in need.

Laterite aggregate was known as high weathered

aggregate which is widely available in tropical region such as Malaysia, Indonesia, Thailand, Nigeria, India and Australia [6], [7], [8]. Laterite previously was used in

pavement [9] and as partial aggregate replacement for concrete making [10], [11], [12], [13] outside Malaysia. However, performance of concrete produced using Malaysian laterite aggregate as partial coarse aggregate replacement is yet to be studied. Thus, this paper presents the engineering properties of concrete containing laterite aggregate as partial coarse aggregate replacement. 2. Experimental Procedure 2.1 Concrete ingredients

In this research, ordinary Portland cement and tap water confirming to BS EN 197 [14] and BS 3148 [15] was used. For fine aggregate, river sand obtained from Berkelah Quarry, Pahang was used as filler. Laterite and granite were used as coarse aggregate.

Laterite shown in Figure 1 was taken from Mempaga,

which is located in the state of Pahang. Granite as illustrated in Figure 2 was supplied from Bukit Rangin, Pahang. Laterite and granite aggregates consist of 20mm maximum grading size. The physical properties and chemical elements of the used aggregates are tabulated in Table 1 and 2 respectively. All the aggregates types meeting the requirements of BS 882 [16].

Keywords: Partial coarse aggregate replacement Laterite concrete Compressive strength Flexural strength Modulus of elasticity


Geo-Environmental



The increasing utilization of natural aggregate for concrete production has created negative impact towards environment. Thus, investigation on searching for alternative material which has potential to replace the use of granite aggregate in concrete mix is very much in need. This paper presents the engineering properties of concrete containing laterite aggregate as partial coarse aggregate replacement. Granite aggregate has been replaced by 10, 20, 30, 40 and 50% with laterite aggregate. All the specimens were subjected to water curing until it is ready to be tested. Tests on compressive strength, flexural strength and modulus of elasticity have been carried out at the age of 7, 14, 28 and 60 days. The results revealed that replacement of laterite aggregate up to 30% able to produce laterite concrete exhibiting the targeted strength which is 30 MPa.


48

Figure 1 Laterite aggregate obtained from Mempaga,

Pahang.

Figure 2 Granite aggregate supplied from Bukit Rangin,

Pahang.

Aggregate properties Laterite Granite Specific gravity 2.54 2.69 Water absorption (%) 1.07 0.92 Moisture content (%) 0.52 0.45 Soundness (%) 98.6 99.2 Deleterious material (%) 0.52 0.42 Crushing value 30.7 28.8 Ten percent value 10.2 8.4 Impact value 28.7 26.2 Flakiness index (%) 8.5 6.3 Elongation index (%) 8.0 6.1 Table 1 The physical properties of the used coarse

aggregate 2.2 Concrete mix design and testing

Concrete mix design of Grade 30 was prepared according to BS 1881 [17]. Two types of mix have been used in this study that is control mix consisting 100% granite aggregate and laterite concrete containing various percentage of laterite aggregate. The laterite aggregate replacement used is from 10% to 50% with 10% interval. The mix proportion of the mixes is tabulated in Table 2.

A total of 72 cubes 150mm, prisms

150x150x750mm and cylinders 150mm diameter with 300mm height were casted and demoulded after 24 hours. Then the specimens were subjected to water until the testing date. Compressive strength test, flexural

strength test and modulus of elasticity have been conducted following the procedure outlined in BS EN 12390-3 [18], BS 1881-118 [19] and BS 1881-121 [20] respectively. Specimens have been tested at 7, 14, 28 and 60 days. Cement

(kg/m3) Granite (kg/m3)

Laterite (kg/m3)

Sand (kg/m3) w/c

Control 365 1170 - 660 0.45 LC10 LC20 LC30 LC40 LC50

365 365 365 365 365

1053 936 819 702 585

117 234 351 468 585

660 660 660 660 660

0.45 0.45 0.45 0.45 0.45

Table 2 Mix proportion of concrete 3. Results and Discussions

3.1 Compressive strength Compressive strength test was conducted on the specimens to determine the influence of laterite aggregate as partial coarse aggregate replacement towards compressive strength of concrete. Figure 3 shows the results of compressive strength of specimens at various age stages; 7, 14, 28, and 60 days. From the results, the compressive strength of LC10 is comparable with plain concrete. The results revealed that replacement of laterite aggregate up to 30% able to produce laterite concrete exhibiting the targeted strength which is 30 MPa. However, replacement beyond 30% causes significant strength reduction. Addition of too much laterite aggregate which capable possess lower density compared to granite leads lower strength.

Substituting natural aggregates, at different

replacement levels, by Malaysian laterite aggregates definitely have influence on the mechanical behavior of the concrete. This is probably due to variation in the physical characteristic of laterite aggregate compared to granite in term of denseness, surface texture and shape. Previous researcher [21] has highlighted that the coarse aggregate properties have influence towards the concrete properties.

Figure 3 Effect of the laterite content on the

compressive strength.


48

Figure 1 Laterite aggregate obtained from Mempaga,

Pahang.

Figure 2 Granite aggregate supplied from Bukit Rangin,

Pahang.

Aggregate properties Laterite Granite Specific gravity 2.54 2.69 Water absorption (%) 1.07 0.92 Moisture content (%) 0.52 0.45 Soundness (%) 98.6 99.2 Deleterious material (%) 0.52 0.42 Crushing value 30.7 28.8 Ten percent value 10.2 8.4 Impact value 28.7 26.2 Flakiness index (%) 8.5 6.3 Elongation index (%) 8.0 6.1 Table 1 The physical properties of the used coarse

aggregate 2.2 Concrete mix design and testing

Concrete mix design of Grade 30 was prepared according to BS 1881 [17]. Two types of mix have been used in this study that is control mix consisting 100% granite aggregate and laterite concrete containing various percentage of laterite aggregate. The laterite aggregate replacement used is from 10% to 50% with 10% interval. The mix proportion of the mixes is tabulated in Table 2.

A total of 72 cubes 150mm, prisms

150x150x750mm and cylinders 150mm diameter with 300mm height were casted and demoulded after 24 hours. Then the specimens were subjected to water until the testing date. Compressive strength test, flexural

strength test and modulus of elasticity have been conducted following the procedure outlined in BS EN 12390-3 [18], BS 1881-118 [19] and BS 1881-121 [20] respectively. Specimens have been tested at 7, 14, 28 and 60 days. Cement

(kg/m3) Granite (kg/m3)

Laterite (kg/m3)

Sand (kg/m3) w/c

Control 365 1170 - 660 0.45 LC10 LC20 LC30 LC40 LC50

365 365 365 365 365

1053 936 819 702 585

117 234 351 468 585

660 660 660 660 660

0.45 0.45 0.45 0.45 0.45

Table 2 Mix proportion of concrete 3. Results and Discussions

3.1 Compressive strength Compressive strength test was conducted on the specimens to determine the influence of laterite aggregate as partial coarse aggregate replacement towards compressive strength of concrete. Figure 3 shows the results of compressive strength of specimens at various age stages; 7, 14, 28, and 60 days. From the results, the compressive strength of LC10 is comparable with plain concrete. The results revealed that replacement of laterite aggregate up to 30% able to produce laterite concrete exhibiting the targeted strength which is 30 MPa. However, replacement beyond 30% causes significant strength reduction. Addition of too much laterite aggregate which capable possess lower density compared to granite leads lower strength.

Substituting natural aggregates, at different

replacement levels, by Malaysian laterite aggregates definitely have influence on the mechanical behavior of the concrete. This is probably due to variation in the physical characteristic of laterite aggregate compared to granite in term of denseness, surface texture and shape. Previous researcher [21] has highlighted that the coarse aggregate properties have influence towards the concrete properties.

Figure 3 Effect of the laterite content on the

compressive strength.

Engineering Properties of Concrete with Laterite Aggregate as Partial Coarse Aggregate Replacement

49

3.2 Flexural strength Flexural strength test was conducted in order to measure the specimens’ ability to resists deformation under load. The results obtained for the flexural strength performance of concrete as shown in Figure 4 demonstrates a similar trend to that observed in the compressive strength development.

For a given concrete mix and at a given age,

increasing the amount of the laterite aggregate in the mixture has led to a slight decrease of the flexural strength. The flexural strength loss could be attributed to the weak bonding strength between the hydrated cement paste and the blended aggregate consists of laterite and granite which possess different characteristic.

The flexural strength was approximately 14-15%

from the compressive strength value. Since flexural strength of concrete is about 10-20% of compressive strength depending on the type, size and the volume of aggregate used [22], the value obtained in the testing is within the range. Basically, the performance of concrete specimens which consist 10 to 50% of laterite aggregate exhibit good flexural strength.

Figure 4 Effect of the laterite content on the flexural

strength.

3.3 Modulus of elasticity Modulus of elasticity test was conducted to examine the influence of laterite aggregate towards concrete elasticity in various replacement percentages. The modulus of elasticity result as shown in Figure 5 follows a similar trend to development of compressive strength. Increase in the laterite aggregate replacement cause the concrete to be less stiff [23]. The low values of the elastic modulus of concrete made with the laterite aggregate might be because of the corresponding low strength characteristics of the laterite aggregate when compared to the granite.

Figure 5 Effect of the laterite content on the modulus of

elasticity 4. Conclusion The use of laterite aggregate as partial coarse aggregate replacement has influence towards engineering properties of concrete. The study discovered that replacement of 10% laterite aggregate can produce laterite concrete exhibiting comparable strength with normal concrete. Replacement of laterite aggregate up to 30% was able to produce laterite concrete exhibiting the targeted strength which is 30 MPa. Nomenclature The terms that used in the paper are listed as follow: LC : laterite concrete wc : water cement ratio Acknowledgements This research was financially supported by Ministry of Higher Education of Malaysia and Universiti Malaysia Pahang. References W. Zulasmin, (2007) “Towards a sustainable quarry

industry in Malaysia- Limestone and granite quarry industry”.

Yong PC, (2009), “Utilization of recycled aggregate as coarse aggregate in concrete”, Unimas E-Journal of Civil Engineering, vol. 1, no. 1/August, 1-6.

Malaysia Mineralogy Department, (2010) “Towards sustainable construction bulletin 2010”.

Shafii F, (2006) “Achieving sustainable construction” 5-6.

Malaysia Mineralogy Department, (2011), “2009 Minerals Yearbook”.

Madu RM, (1980) “The performance of lateritic stones as concrete aggregates and road chippings,” Management, vol. 1.

Raju K, (1972), “Properties of laterite aggregate concrete,” Materiaux et Construction, vol. 307, no. 1, 307-314


50

Ryduchowska D.T, (1986), “The effect of aggregate variation on the compressive strength,” Concrete, vol. 16, 135-142.

Koranteng-yorke B, (2010), “Structural integrity of laterite soils for asphaltic concrete”, University of Birmingham

Ata O, (1991), “Influence of method and duration of curing and of mix proportions on strength of concrete containing laterite fine aggregate,” Concrete, vol. 26, no. 4, 453-458.

Adepegba D, (1975), “A comparative study of normal concrete with concrete which contained laterite instead of sand,” Building Science, vol. 10, no. 2, 135-141.

Ikponmwosa E and Salau M.A, (2010), “Effect of heat on laterised concrete,” Journal of Science and Technology, vol. 4, no. 01, 33-42.

Udoeyo F.F, Iron U.H, and Odim O.O, (2006), “Strength performance of laterized concrete,” Construction and Building Materials, vol. 20, no. 10, 1057-1062.

BS EN 197-1:2011 Cement. Composition, Specifications and Conformity Criteria for Common Cements.

BS 3148:1980 Water for making concrete. BS 882 Specification for aggregates from natural sources

for concrete. BS 1881-108 Method for making test cubes from fresh

concrete. BS EN 12390-3:2009 Method for determination

compressive strength of test specimens. BS 1881-118:1983 Method for determination of flexural

strength. BS 1881-121:1983 Method for determination of static

modulus of elasticity in compression. Park F, (1998), “Aggregate toughness / abrasion

resistance and durability / soundness tests related to asphalt concrete performance”, Test, no. 98.

CIP 16:2000 Flexural Strength Concrete, National Ready Mix Concrete Association.

Kumar P.S, (2006), “A study on high performance concrete using sandstone aggregates,” Universiti Malaysia Sabah.


50

Ryduchowska D.T, (1986), “The effect of aggregate variation on the compressive strength,” Concrete, vol. 16, 135-142.

Koranteng-yorke B, (2010), “Structural integrity of laterite soils for asphaltic concrete”, University of Birmingham

Ata O, (1991), “Influence of method and duration of curing and of mix proportions on strength of concrete containing laterite fine aggregate,” Concrete, vol. 26, no. 4, 453-458.

Adepegba D, (1975), “A comparative study of normal concrete with concrete which contained laterite instead of sand,” Building Science, vol. 10, no. 2, 135-141.

Ikponmwosa E and Salau M.A, (2010), “Effect of heat on laterised concrete,” Journal of Science and Technology, vol. 4, no. 01, 33-42.

Udoeyo F.F, Iron U.H, and Odim O.O, (2006), “Strength performance of laterized concrete,” Construction and Building Materials, vol. 20, no. 10, 1057-1062.

BS EN 197-1:2011 Cement. Composition, Specifications and Conformity Criteria for Common Cements.

BS 3148:1980 Water for making concrete. BS 882 Specification for aggregates from natural sources

for concrete. BS 1881-108 Method for making test cubes from fresh

concrete. BS EN 12390-3:2009 Method for determination

compressive strength of test specimens. BS 1881-118:1983 Method for determination of flexural

strength. BS 1881-121:1983 Method for determination of static

modulus of elasticity in compression. Park F, (1998), “Aggregate toughness / abrasion

resistance and durability / soundness tests related to asphalt concrete performance”, Test, no. 98.

CIP 16:2000 Flexural Strength Concrete, National Ready Mix Concrete Association.

Kumar P.S, (2006), “A study on high performance concrete using sandstone aggregates,” Universiti Malaysia Sabah.


______________ *Corresponding author. Mob: +6016-9888107 *Email address: [email protected]

Assessment of Spatial Variation of Surface Water Quality at Gebeng Industrial Estate, Pahang, Malaysia M. A. Hossain*, Sujaul Islam Mir, Nasly M.A., Edriyana A. Aziz Faculty of Civil Engineering & Earth Resources, Universiti Malaysia Pahang, Malaysia ________________________________________________________________________________

____________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ______________________ ___________________________________________________________________

1. Introduction The earth is like a water planet. It is the most delicate part of environment and is essential for human and industrial development. Due to rapid industrialization and population growth, the demand of fresh water rises tremendously in the last few decades (Yisa and Jimoh, 2010). Quality of water is deteriorating all over the world in many ways. Anthropogenic activities are the main causes of water pollution. The rate of pollution by anthropogenic activities is coupled with the ever-growing demands of water resources (Charkhabi and Sakizadeh, 2006). Industrial activities are producing most of the pollutant including organic matter, wastes and heavy metals. The natural and anthropogenic metal contamination in aquatic ecosystem leads to the need of characterizing their impact on environment (Mary-Lou and Taillefert, 2008). Bounty of natural water resources make Malaysia as water rich zone; and it is contributing significantly to the socio-economic

development of the country (Moorthy and Ganesan, 2012). But the situation is not remaining unchanged; it is changing day by day with population growth, urbanization and industrialization. According to the Environmental Quality Report 2009, 46% river water of Malaysia was polluted which was higher than previous couple of years (DOE, 2011). Pahang is the largest province of Peninsular Malaysia. It is situated in the east coast area. Gebeng which is the main industrial area of Pahang is located near Kuantan Port; where the industrial development is growing rapidly. The wastes producing by the industries are mixing with the river water namely Tunggak. Tunggak is one of the important rivers in Pahang that adjacent to Gebeng industrial park. These industrial activities are generating effluents which contain high concentrations of conventional and non-conventional pollutants that deteriorating the water quality of the river. Therefore, the study was done with a view to identify the behavior of the water quality

Keywords: Water Quality Index (WQI), Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD), Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD), Ammoniacal Nitrogen


Geo-Environmental



Gebeng Industrial Estate is the main industrial town of Pahang, where, Tunggak is a strategic river. The anthropogenic impact on the river is as a result of rapid industrialization in Gebeng. This river is of particular importance in the study of surface water quality status because effluents from industries of Gebeng discharge into it thereby deteriorating the quality. Water quality parameters were analyzed across the river with the objective to disclose the spatial variation of the river water quality. To fulfill the objective, water samples were collected monthly from 10 sampling station and physico-chemical parameters were analyzed using APHA & HACH standard methods. Heavy metals were determined using ICP-MS. Data analyses were done using SPSS 16.0 statistical software. The study revealed that, pollution from non-point source was associated with runoff from construction sites of newly developed industrial areas and the point source contributing the major pollutants especially from industrial wastes. According to Interim INWQS, Malaysia based on DO, COD, ammoniacal nitrogen and some selected trace elements, major part of the river specially the mid-region was categorized as class V (very highly polluted) while some part was found in class IV (highly polluted) and rest in class III (polluted) as well. Furthermore, classification of the river based on DOE-WQI showed that seven (7) stations (2-8) were in class IV (highly polluted); station 1, 9 & 10 were found to be polluted. It is concluded that pollution is higher in the middle stations of the river compared to the upper and lower stream.


52

Figure 1: Location of the study area and sampling stations

parameters and to disclose the spatial variation of the pollution status of the surface water in the study area. 2. Materials And Methods 2.1 Study area and selection of station

The Tunggak River originated in uphill of Gebeng. Flowing over the industrial area it meets with another river named Balok; and they jointly fall into the South China Sea. The geographical location of the Tunggak River is 3056� 06� � to 3059� 44� � N and 103022� 42� � to 103024� 47� � E adjacent to the Gebeng industrial town holding several types of industries (Figure 1). Stations selection was done considering the land use-pattern, point-sources of pollution, vegetation and river network. Total 10 stations were selected for sampling. 2.2 Sampling, Data collection and analysis

Water samples were collected monthly from pre-selected 10 stations. Three (3) samples were collected from identical 3 positions in every station for replication. BOD samples were collected using separate BOD bottle and during sampling, transportation and preservation, APHA & HACH standard procedure was followed (Andrew et. al., 2005; HACH, 2005). Using YSI in-situ parameters such as, pH, Temperature, DO, turbidity, salinity, EC, and TDS were also collected during the sampling. For ex-situ parameters HACH spectrophotometer was used. TSS was analyzed by using gravimetric method and heavy metals were determined by using ICP-MS. All parameters were analyzed within 7 days of sample collection. 2.3 Data analysis

For data analysis SPSS 16.0 statistical software was used. Mean, standard deviation and ANOVA and Principal component analysis was done using SPSS as it is the essential tool to identify the underlying factors which are not observable directly in database; but, the main aim of environmental research is to identify those factors influence in environment (Towned, 2003). 3. Results And Discussion

3.1 In-situ parameters

Water temperature of the river varied from 26.160C to

35.240C among the stations. In most of the stations temperature was within the normal limit of Malaysia (Saad et. al., 2008), but the temperature of station 6 to 8 were beyond the normal limit (Table 1). Regarding pH the values varied from station to station. The highest pH value 9.12 was recorded in station 6 followed by station 5 and station 7. Those three stations received most of the effluents of the industrial estate consist of polymer, chemical, metal, gas & power industries. However, at most of the station average pH values were found within the standard level of Malaysia (DOE, 2008). On the contrary, the lowest value 4.16 was recorded in station 8 followed by station 9 and 10; which were below the standard. Perhaps the industrial effluents at the area of station 8 and 10 contained acidic substances and due to submerge condition at station 9 pH was also low (Table 1) Conductivity reading of the stations was mostly within the normal limit except the stations 1 to 3 (Table 2). This was perhaps because of entering the saline water in those 3 stations during tide from the South China Sea (Haris and Maznah, 2008).

Station No.

Geographical Location

Stat. tools

Temperature (oC)

pH

Conductivity (µS/cm)

DO (mg/L) TDS (mg/L) Turbidit

y (NTU)

1. 03°56'35"N

and 103°22'32"E

Range 27.1-30.2 5.7-7.0 14200-27080 2.6-4.4 9040-24300 7.7-22.5 Mean 28.78 6.23 18013 3.30 16137 16.66 SD 1.07 0.52 4946 0.61 7691 6.41

2.

03°57'19"N and

103°22'60"E

Range 28.0-29.2 7.0-7.7 7700-13660 1.1-2.2 5160-7270 10.1-24.7 Mean 28.55 7.28 10880 1.58 6250 17.72 SD 0.59 0.34 2836 0.41 1088 5.81


52

Figure 1: Location of the study area and sampling stations

parameters and to disclose the spatial variation of the pollution status of the surface water in the study area. 2. Materials And Methods 2.1 Study area and selection of station

The Tunggak River originated in uphill of Gebeng. Flowing over the industrial area it meets with another river named Balok; and they jointly fall into the South China Sea. The geographical location of the Tunggak River is 3056� 06� � to 3059� 44� � N and 103022� 42� � to 103024� 47� � E adjacent to the Gebeng industrial town holding several types of industries (Figure 1). Stations selection was done considering the land use-pattern, point-sources of pollution, vegetation and river network. Total 10 stations were selected for sampling. 2.2 Sampling, Data collection and analysis

Water samples were collected monthly from pre-selected 10 stations. Three (3) samples were collected from identical 3 positions in every station for replication. BOD samples were collected using separate BOD bottle and during sampling, transportation and preservation, APHA & HACH standard procedure was followed (Andrew et. al., 2005; HACH, 2005). Using YSI in-situ parameters such as, pH, Temperature, DO, turbidity, salinity, EC, and TDS were also collected during the sampling. For ex-situ parameters HACH spectrophotometer was used. TSS was analyzed by using gravimetric method and heavy metals were determined by using ICP-MS. All parameters were analyzed within 7 days of sample collection. 2.3 Data analysis

For data analysis SPSS 16.0 statistical software was used. Mean, standard deviation and ANOVA and Principal component analysis was done using SPSS as it is the essential tool to identify the underlying factors which are not observable directly in database; but, the main aim of environmental research is to identify those factors influence in environment (Towned, 2003). 3. Results And Discussion

3.1 In-situ parameters

Water temperature of the river varied from 26.160C to

35.240C among the stations. In most of the stations temperature was within the normal limit of Malaysia (Saad et. al., 2008), but the temperature of station 6 to 8 were beyond the normal limit (Table 1). Regarding pH the values varied from station to station. The highest pH value 9.12 was recorded in station 6 followed by station 5 and station 7. Those three stations received most of the effluents of the industrial estate consist of polymer, chemical, metal, gas & power industries. However, at most of the station average pH values were found within the standard level of Malaysia (DOE, 2008). On the contrary, the lowest value 4.16 was recorded in station 8 followed by station 9 and 10; which were below the standard. Perhaps the industrial effluents at the area of station 8 and 10 contained acidic substances and due to submerge condition at station 9 pH was also low (Table 1) Conductivity reading of the stations was mostly within the normal limit except the stations 1 to 3 (Table 2). This was perhaps because of entering the saline water in those 3 stations during tide from the South China Sea (Haris and Maznah, 2008).

Station No.

Geographical Location

Stat. tools

Temperature (oC)

pH

Conductivity (µS/cm)

DO (mg/L) TDS (mg/L) Turbidit

y (NTU)

1. 03°56'35"N

and 103°22'32"E

Range 27.1-30.2 5.7-7.0 14200-27080 2.6-4.4 9040-24300 7.7-22.5 Mean 28.78 6.23 18013 3.30 16137 16.66 SD 1.07 0.52 4946 0.61 7691 6.41

2.

03°57'19"N and

103°22'60"E

Range 28.0-29.2 7.0-7.7 7700-13660 1.1-2.2 5160-7270 10.1-24.7 Mean 28.55 7.28 10880 1.58 6250 17.72 SD 0.59 0.34 2836 0.41 1088 5.81

Assessment of Spatial Variation of Surface Water Quality at Gebeng Industrial Estate, Pahang, Malaysia

53

3. 03°57'40"N

and 1 03°23'15"E

Range 29.0-29.8 7.3-8.4 1244-1800 1.3-1.8 650-869 9.8-20.7 Mean 29.34 7.69 1395 1.69 767 13.70 SD 0.38 0.38 207 0.36 112 3.90

4. 03°57'54"N

and 103°23'23"E

Range 30.9-32.6 7.5-8.5 1119-1320 1.6-4.1 527-821 10.1-17.3 Mean 31.74 7.95 1212 2.71 613 14.14 SD 0.75 0.35 95 0.96 108 3.42

5. 03°58'13"N

and 103°23'23"E

Range 30.9-33.1 7.0-9.0 1380-1630 1.9-3.9 642-748 11.3-34.5 Mean 31.98 7.96 1505 3.12 700 23.44 SD 1.07 0.99 107 0.91 50 12.03

6. 03°58'34"N

and 103°23'14"E

Range 31.6-34.1 7.3-9.1 1423-1740 1.6-3.2 649-778 11.7-28.8 Mean 32.88 8.01 1585 2.32 715 20.98 SD 1.35 0.76 164 0.79 68 8.01

7. 03°59'13.44"N

and 103°23'17"E

Range 33.2-35.2 6.8-8.6 923-1210 2.9-3.9 203-529 6.7-12.4 Mean 33.78 7.65 1068 3.28 365 9.82 SD 0.88 0.62 149 0.51 171 2.30

8. 03°59'16"N

and 103°23'17"E

Range 32.5-34.1 4.7-5.4 51-58 2.8-4.3 19.6-24.8 4.8-10.1 Mean 33.27 4.96 55 3.38 21.78 6.59 SD 0.56 0.29 3.31 0.59 2.25 1.81

9. 03°59'27"N

and 103°24'12"

Range 26.2-27.4 4.2-6.7 20-27 1.93-3.1

7.7-8.7 2.1-6.0 Mean 26.78 5.13 24 2.34 8.15 3.87

SD 0.61 1.04 3.39 0.38 0.47 1.56

10. 03°59'38"N

and 103°24'45"E

Range 31.1-31.8 5.1-6.4 713-787 2.4-3.0 333-379 7.7-12.2 Mean 31.45 5.86 750 2.66 354 10.11

SD 0.29 0.44 36.01 0.22 22.12 2.09

Table 1: Range, mean and SD of in- situ parameters of the study areas with geographical location Concentration of DO recorded very low in all of the stations varied from 1.1 mg/L at station 2 to 4.4 mg/L at station 1 (Table 1). According to INWQS, Malaysia the stations were categorized as class III and IV based on DO concentration. TDS concentration was higher in the lower stations compare to the uppermost. Station 1 and 2 contained higher amount of TDS due to tidal disturbance (Haris and Maznah, 2008), forested area

and there were some agricultural activities adjacent to the station 2. Meanwhile, TDS of station 7-10 were in permissible limits 500 mg/L (DOE, 2008) (Table 1). Regarding turbidity the estimated level varied from 2.1 NTU at station 9 to 34.5 NTU at station 5 (Table 1); only station 9 was found to be in normal level whether rest of all contained higher value of turbidity according to the INWQS, Malaysia (DOE, 2008).

3.2 Ex-situ parameters Collecting samples from sampling sites were analyzed in laboratory for determining the amount of sulphate (SO4), NH3-N, nitrate-nitrogen (NO3-N), phosphate-phosphorus (PO43), BOD, COD and TSS. Results showed that the amount of sulphate was the highest in station 1 followed by 2 and 7 (Figure 2).It was due to station 1 & 2 near the sea (Haris and Maznah, 2008) and 7 was adjacent with some chemical industries which produced detergent and discharged sulfur reach effluents into the river flow. The amount of NH3-N varied from 0.25 mg/L at station 9 to 3.47 mg/L at 3 (Figure 3). The values were beyond the permissible limit of INWQS of Malaysia; and it categorized the water of mid-stations as class V. NO3-N level was within the safe

level (<0.4) (Saad et. al., 2008) except station 5 to 7 (Figure 3); those three stations received most of the effluents from the industries including polymer, chemical, metal, gas & power and wooden industries of Gebeng. From the analysis PO43- recorded the highest 6.3 mg/L at station 10 (Figure 4) while the other stations contained relatively lower concentration of PO43-. Meanwhile, PO43- amount was in permissible level at station 7 to 9 (DOE, 2008). TSS was observed almost below the standard level except at station 1and station 2. Water at these two stations was found loaded with TSS. At station 1 the concentration was 47.17 mg/L followed by 37.67 at station 2 (Figure 5). This was perhaps


54

because of sea water intrusion, forested area and at station 2 there were some agricultural activities.

Figure 2: Variation of sulphate concentration among the

stations of the study area

Figure 4: Variation of phosphate concentration among the stations of the study area

Biochemical parameters BOD and COD concentration were determined and the result was analyzed. It revealed that, BOD was the highest 32.88 mg/L at station 7 and the lowest was 4.23 mg/L at station 9 (Figure 6). The BOD values of all stations were beyond the permissible limit (DOE, 2008) and it

was due to the discharge of industrial wastes to the river flow. In the same way COD was also maximum at station 7 and minimum at station 9 (Figure 6). According to INWQS Malaysia, BOD and COD values categorized the water of mid-region as class V (highly polluted). However, COD level recorded safe at station 9 &10.

Figure 3: Variation of nitrate nitrogen and ammoniacal nitrogen concentration among the station of the study area

Figure 5: Variation of TSS concentration among the stations of the study area


54

because of sea water intrusion, forested area and at station 2 there were some agricultural activities.

Figure 2: Variation of sulphate concentration among the

stations of the study area

Figure 4: Variation of phosphate concentration among the stations of the study area

Biochemical parameters BOD and COD concentration were determined and the result was analyzed. It revealed that, BOD was the highest 32.88 mg/L at station 7 and the lowest was 4.23 mg/L at station 9 (Figure 6). The BOD values of all stations were beyond the permissible limit (DOE, 2008) and it

was due to the discharge of industrial wastes to the river flow. In the same way COD was also maximum at station 7 and minimum at station 9 (Figure 6). According to INWQS Malaysia, BOD and COD values categorized the water of mid-region as class V (highly polluted). However, COD level recorded safe at station 9 &10.

Figure 3: Variation of nitrate nitrogen and ammoniacal nitrogen concentration among the station of the study area

Figure 5: Variation of TSS concentration among the stations of the study area

Assessment of Spatial Variation of Surface Water Quality at Gebeng Industrial Estate, Pahang, Malaysia

55

Figure 6: Variation of BOD and COD concentration among the stations of the study area

Heavy metals were determined by using ICP-MS (Inductively Coupled Plasma Mass Spectrometry). Result showed that water of the river was bearing chromium (Cr), cobalt (Co), copper (Cu), zinc (Zn), barium (Ba) and lead (Pb). The concentration of Pd found to be higher at all station compare to the permissible level (DOE, 2008). Cu concentration was beyond the standard limit at station 1 and 7 (Table 2). The Table 2 also showed that, Co was recorded higher at stations 1 to 6 and Cr

concentration was higher at station 8. However, Zn and Ba were observed below the standard limit of Malaysia. Adjacent to the river the major industries are chemical, polymer, metal, petrochemical and gas & energy; those effluents bear the toxic heavy metal as a result polluting the river water of the area. Due to the addition of industrial effluents with the river water the quality of water deteriorated and based on the types of industry pollution level of the river differ from station to station.

Stations Chromium Cobalt Copper Zinc Barium Lead Station 1 0.0082 0.0926 0.4496 1.0717 0.0303 0.5415 Station 2 0.0010 0.2243 0.0033 0.9441 0.0291 0.4956 Station 3 0.0015 0.1740 0.0032 0.3431 0.0282 0.4827 Station 4 0.0013 0.2502 0.0023 0.4778 0.0236 0.4801 Station 5 0.0134 0.6191 0.0154 1.9435 0.0503 0.4937 Station 6 0.0135 0.6716 0.2357 0.8405 0.0256 0.2323 Station 7 0.0395 0.0000 0.4496 1.0003 0.0196 0.2349 Station 8 0.0575 0.0003 0.0033 0.8810 0.0072 0.2305 Station 9 0.0321 0.0920 0.0013 0.1400 0.0101 0.4896

Station 10 0.0161 0.0000 0.3124 1.0003 0.0689 0.2283

Table: 2: Heavy metal concentration in surface water of the study area (amount in ppm) 3.3 Water Quality Index

Water quality index values were calculated based on DO, BOD, COD, NH3-N, TSS and pH concentration (Norhayati, 1981; Yusuf, 2001 and Haque et. al., 2010). Water quality classification of the study area was done using the calculated WQI-values and demonstrated in Table 3. As can be seen, according to the DOE-WQI of Malaysia the water of the Tunggak River was classified as Class IV (highly polluted) except the lower station 1 and upper stations 9 & 10; which were found to be polluted (Table 3). The water of the river at station 2 to 8 was found to be not usable except irrigation; and the water at station 1, 9 & 10 could be use for some specific fisheries only after intensive treatment (DOE, 2008). The

cause of higher pollution at mid-stations was due to the maximum wastes were adding at those stations as dense industrial activities were existing at the mid-region; on the other hand, at upper stations minimum industry and at lower station tidal interference made the water less polluted (Haris and Maznah, 2008).


56

Sampling station

DOE-WQI values

Water quality class

Water quality status

Station 1 51.99 III Polluted Station2 45.67 IV

Highly Polluted

Station 3 45.35 IV Station 4 44.48 IV Station 5 43.36 IV Station 6 43.16 IV Station 7 38.35 IV Station 8 50.47 IV Station 9 61.95 III Polluted Station 10 53.18 III

Where, DOE-WQI value, ≥91.76 = Class I; 75.37- 91.75 = Class II; 51.68 – 75.36=Class III; 29.61 – 51.67 = Class IV and <29.61= Class V Table 3: River water quality classification of the study area based on DOE-WQI 4. Conclusion

This study revealed that the pollution level was comparatively higher in the middle stations because of maximum wastes discharged to those stations from the industries. On the other hand, due to tidal interference at lower stream and less industry at the upper stream caused less pollution in lower and upper stations. Considering the analytical results and data analysis it is clear that the major source of pollutant was the industrial activities. The variation among the stations was due to the presence of different types of industries. Again, the presence of forest, agricultural land, homestead and sea also contributed to the spatial variation. To reduce the pollution level of the river water close monitoring of industrial activities should be ensured and emphasis should also given on recycling of industrial wastes of their own before discharging to the river flow. 5. Acknowledgement

Authors are grateful to the University Malaysia Pahang and Faculty of Civil Engineering and Earth resources for research funding through the project RDU: 110354. We are also grateful to the laboratory personals for their cooperation during sample analysis.

References A. H. Charkhabi and M. Sakizadeh (2006). Assessment

of spatial variation of water quality parameters in the most polluted branch of the Anzali wetland, northern Iran, Polish J. of Environ. Stud, 15(3). Pages: 395-403.

Andrew D. Eaton, Lenore S. Clesceri, Eugene W. Rice, Arnold E. Greenberg and Mary Ann H. Franson, (2005). Standard methods for the examination of water and wastewater. American Public Health Association, Washington, USA.

Department of Environment, (2011). Chapter 3. River water quality. Malaysia environmental quality report, 2009, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia.

Department of Environment,(2008). Interim National Water Quality Standards for Malaysia. Kuala lumpur, Malaysia.

HACH (2005). Water analysis guide. HACH Company, USA.

Hazzeman Haris and Wan Maznah, W. O. (2008). The effects of tidal events on water quality in the coastal area of Petani River Basin, Malaysia. International Conference on Environmental Research and Technology (ICERT 2008).

J. Yisa and, T. Jimoh, (2010). Analytical studies on water quality index of river Landzu, American Journal of Applied Sciences, 7(4). Pages: 453-58.

M. A. Haque, Y. F. Huang and T. S. Lee,(2010). Seberang Perai rice scheme irrigation water quality assessment. Journal - The Institution of Engineers, Malaysia. 71(4). Pages: 42-49.

Mary-Lou Tercier-Waeber and Martial Taillefert (2008). Remote in-situ voltammetric techniques to characterize the biogeochemical cycling of trace metals in aquatic systems. J. Environ. Monit., 10(1). Pages: 30-54.

M A Yusuf, (2001). PhD thesis: river water quality and ecosystem health in Langat basin, Selangor, Malaysia, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia.

Mohd Saad, Farah Naemah and Nik Abdul Rahman, Nik Norulaini and Abdul Kadir, Mohd Omar and Mohd Omar, Fatehah, (2008).

Norhayati Mustapha,(1981). Master’s thesis: indices for water quality in a river. Asian Institute of Technology, Bangkok.

Project Report: Identification of Pollution Sources within the Sungai Pinang River Basin. Universiti Sains Malaysia. Available at http://eprints.usm.my/4907/Park Royal Penang, Malaysia. Pages: 595-599.

Ravichanddran Moorthy and Ganesan Jeyabalan, (2012). Ethics and sustainability: a review of water policy and management. American Journal of Applied Sciences, 9(1). Pages: 24-31.

Towned J., (2003). Practical statistics for environmental and biological scientists. John Wiley & Sons, New York. Pages: 221-228.


56

Sampling station

DOE-WQI values

Water quality class

Water quality status

Station 1 51.99 III Polluted Station2 45.67 IV

Highly Polluted

Station 3 45.35 IV Station 4 44.48 IV Station 5 43.36 IV Station 6 43.16 IV Station 7 38.35 IV Station 8 50.47 IV Station 9 61.95 III Polluted Station 10 53.18 III

Where, DOE-WQI value, ≥91.76 = Class I; 75.37- 91.75 = Class II; 51.68 – 75.36=Class III; 29.61 – 51.67 = Class IV and <29.61= Class V Table 3: River water quality classification of the study area based on DOE-WQI 4. Conclusion

This study revealed that the pollution level was comparatively higher in the middle stations because of maximum wastes discharged to those stations from the industries. On the other hand, due to tidal interference at lower stream and less industry at the upper stream caused less pollution in lower and upper stations. Considering the analytical results and data analysis it is clear that the major source of pollutant was the industrial activities. The variation among the stations was due to the presence of different types of industries. Again, the presence of forest, agricultural land, homestead and sea also contributed to the spatial variation. To reduce the pollution level of the river water close monitoring of industrial activities should be ensured and emphasis should also given on recycling of industrial wastes of their own before discharging to the river flow. 5. Acknowledgement

Authors are grateful to the University Malaysia Pahang and Faculty of Civil Engineering and Earth resources for research funding through the project RDU: 110354. We are also grateful to the laboratory personals for their cooperation during sample analysis.

References A. H. Charkhabi and M. Sakizadeh (2006). Assessment

of spatial variation of water quality parameters in the most polluted branch of the Anzali wetland, northern Iran, Polish J. of Environ. Stud, 15(3). Pages: 395-403.

Andrew D. Eaton, Lenore S. Clesceri, Eugene W. Rice, Arnold E. Greenberg and Mary Ann H. Franson, (2005). Standard methods for the examination of water and wastewater. American Public Health Association, Washington, USA.

Department of Environment, (2011). Chapter 3. River water quality. Malaysia environmental quality report, 2009, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia.

Department of Environment,(2008). Interim National Water Quality Standards for Malaysia. Kuala lumpur, Malaysia.

HACH (2005). Water analysis guide. HACH Company, USA.

Hazzeman Haris and Wan Maznah, W. O. (2008). The effects of tidal events on water quality in the coastal area of Petani River Basin, Malaysia. International Conference on Environmental Research and Technology (ICERT 2008).

J. Yisa and, T. Jimoh, (2010). Analytical studies on water quality index of river Landzu, American Journal of Applied Sciences, 7(4). Pages: 453-58.

M. A. Haque, Y. F. Huang and T. S. Lee,(2010). Seberang Perai rice scheme irrigation water quality assessment. Journal - The Institution of Engineers, Malaysia. 71(4). Pages: 42-49.

Mary-Lou Tercier-Waeber and Martial Taillefert (2008). Remote in-situ voltammetric techniques to characterize the biogeochemical cycling of trace metals in aquatic systems. J. Environ. Monit., 10(1). Pages: 30-54.

M A Yusuf, (2001). PhD thesis: river water quality and ecosystem health in Langat basin, Selangor, Malaysia, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia.

Mohd Saad, Farah Naemah and Nik Abdul Rahman, Nik Norulaini and Abdul Kadir, Mohd Omar and Mohd Omar, Fatehah, (2008).

Norhayati Mustapha,(1981). Master’s thesis: indices for water quality in a river. Asian Institute of Technology, Bangkok.

Project Report: Identification of Pollution Sources within the Sungai Pinang River Basin. Universiti Sains Malaysia. Available at http://eprints.usm.my/4907/Park Royal Penang, Malaysia. Pages: 595-599.

Ravichanddran Moorthy and Ganesan Jeyabalan, (2012). Ethics and sustainability: a review of water policy and management. American Journal of Applied Sciences, 9(1). Pages: 24-31.

Towned J., (2003). Practical statistics for environmental and biological scientists. John Wiley & Sons, New York. Pages: 221-228.

Equilibrium, thermodynamic and kinetic studies for removal of Chromium from aqueous solution by Grafted copolymer

Anwar Ahmad1, Lakhveer Singh2*, Zularisam Abd. Wahid2 1Department of Civil & Engineering, King Saud University, Saudi Arabia (KSU) 2Faculty of Civil Engineering & Earth Resources, Universiti Malaysia Pahang ________________________________________________________________________________

____________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ______________________ __________________________________________________________________ 1. Introduction Heavy metals are known to cause toxicological problems to environment and human health. Recent scientific researches mainly focus upon sustainable way of development using techniques that are environment friendly as well as cost-effective and practical. Based on the aforesaid criteria, investigations are being carried out to extract heavy metal ions from wastewater using biological waste. Chromium metals are major components of stainless steel and their salts are used extensively in electroplating industries.chromium is being released in huge quantities in industrial waste water leading to pollution and contamination of the environment. Industries like metal cleaning, electroplating and metal processing, etc. are the main sources of chromium emanation to the environment Amrita et al. 2005, Although chromium (III) is an essential nutrient to produce various biochemical processes, chromium (VI) is reported as toxic element. It has been reported that both nickel and chromium (VI) can cause an increase triglyceride and phospholipids in serum associated with liver necrosis (Das et al, 2001; Kaufman et al, 1970; Kumar et al., 1981). A study by Kumar et demonstrated that there is increased accumulation of lipids in liver of rats after orally exposed to chromium (VI). Chromium, which initiates lipid

peroxidation (LPO), thereby causing oxidative damage to critical macromolecules like proteins, DNA as well as celldamage/ death (Das et al., 2001; Doreswamy et al., 2004). Several biosorbents such as rice husks, tea factory waste (Wasetwar et al., 2008), fish scale Espinosa et al , wheat shell Basci et al, coffee husk (Rahmana et al., 2009) maple sawdust (Kumar et al., 1981) has been investigated for adsorbing heavy metal ion from aqueous solutions.

In this study the effectiveness Cellulosic fiber have been found as a suitable material for preparation of hydrogel by grafting reaction, as its linear structure provides good reinforcing properties to networks. Due to its renewable and abundance in nature it was used for cost effective technologies and hydrogel (Nada et al., 2007; Sokker et al., 2006; Chauhan et al., 2005). Cellulose and its derivatives have been used for removal of chromium from aqueous solutions was investigated. 2.0 Materials and methods 2.1. Biosorbent preparation Several agricultural product and byproduct are natural source of cellulose. Among them, cotton, hemp, flax, rice husk, sugarcane bagasse, sawdust of wood, wheat straw,

Keywords: Grafted copolymer, FTIR, Chromium, Biosorption, Remediation


The graft co-polymer of binary monomers ethyl acylate (EA) and acrylonitrile (AN) onto natural cellulosic fiber using ceric ammonium nitrate as initiator has been studied for the removal of Chromium from aqueous solution. FTIR analysis and Boehm titration were used to identify and estimate the surface functional groups. Point of zero charge for the cellulosic fiber between 4.25 to 4.45 respectively. The maximum adsorption capacity of onion skin (76.9 mg/g) was slightly higher (pH = 5.3, T = 303K). The pseudo second order kinetic model fitted the batch data adequately. The rate constant of the kinetic model for cellulose fiber in absence of diffusional resistance was estimated to be 0.07 mg/g/min respectively at 303 K. Estimated thermodynamic parameters indicated the biosorption process to be endothermic.

International Journal of Civil Engineering and Geo-Environmental

Journal homepage:http://ijceg.ump.edu.my

ISSN:21802742


58

onion skin, palm kernel husk, peanut skin, pinus bark, corncobs, cane stick, jute stem, banana fiber, papyrus, rapia, etc., have been tested as efficient adsorbent for heavy metal ion, especially adsorbent for divalent metal cation (Espinosa et al., 2001; Nada et al., 2006). But the raw fiber material used in this study was purchased from Himachal Krishi Vishwavidyalaya, Palampur, H. P, and India. The purification of the fiber was done by the soxhlet extraction with acetone for 72 hours and the resultant fiber was dried at room temperature. Acrylonitrile (AN), zinc nitrate, magnesium nitrate, dimethyl formamide (DMF), acetone, nickel nitrate ( S.D. Fine), ethyl acylate (EA), ceric ammonium nitrate (Merck, India) and Nitric acid (Nice Chemical Ltd) were used as received.

The experimental studies were carried out in

duplicate. Point of zero charge (PZC) was determined using the mass titration method described by Basci et al., 2009. Initially three aqueous solutions were prepared of pH 3, 6 and 10. Increasing amount of biosorbents (0.05%, 0.1%, 0.5%, 1.0%, 3.0%, 7.0% and 10.0% w/w) were added in 20ml of each solutions and allowed to equilibrate in a temperature controlled shaker incubator for 24h in 30ºC and 120 rpm. The equilibrium pH was measured for each solution using a digital pH meter. The pH versus biosorbent mass curve gives the PZC range for both the biosorbents.

Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) was

used to identify the chemical groups present in the fiber. Solutions of NaHCO3 (0.1 mol/L), Na2CO3 (0.05 mol/L), NaOH (0.1 mol/L), and HCl (0.1 mol/L) were prepared with deionized water. 1 g of cellulose were added to a volume of 50mL of these solutions and shaken at 100 rpm for 24h to reach equilibrium. After filtration, excess of base or acid was then determined by back titration using NaOH (0.1 mol/L) and HCl (0.1 mol/L) solutions. 2.2. Biosorption studies The copper solution was prepared by dissolving its sulfate salt (Merck) in deionised water. Equilibrium sorption studies were conducted in 250 mL Erlenmeyer flask in a temperature controlled shaker incubator at 120 rpm for 24 h. For these studies, 0.2 g cellulose fiber contacted with the desired concentrations of chromium solution at defined initial pH and temperature.

Batch studies were carried out in a vessel of diameter 12 cm with 500 mL of solution and specified amount of biosorbent. A mechanical stirrer (1500 rpm) was used to agitate the system. Concentration of chromium metal ions in the solution was measured by Atomic absorption spectrophotometer (Perkin Elmer A Analyst 200). The amount of metal uptake by the biosorbent was calculated using the following equation: t i tq V C C W (1)

where tq and tC is amount of metal ion biosorbed per gram of biomass and solution concentration at time t ,

iC is the initial solution concentration, V is the volume

of metal solution and W is the weight of biosorbent. 3 Results and discussion 3.1. Characterization of biosorbent The IR spectrum of the grafted copolymer was determined by using KBr Technique. When the traditional KBr pellet technique is used we obtain information about both the polymer grafted on the surface of the fibrils and also about the polymer grafted inside the fibrils. The attenuated total reflectance technique (ATR) is a useful method to detect the surface structural Mao et al. In special case FTIR may also be used to study the form of binding of the adsorbed species to the poymer. The FTIR spectrum of grafted adsorbent was shown in Figure 1.

Fig. 1: FTIR spectrum of grafted adsorbent 3.2. Effect of pH The effect of initial pH on adsorption capacity of cellulose is shown in the Fig. 3. Diluted HCl was added to the solutions to get the desired pH values. The uptake increased with change in initial pH from 3 to 5.3 for the adsorbent. Experiments were restricted to pH 5.3 as at higher pH chromium precipitates out in the form of insoluble chromium hydroxide.

An increase in pH results in more negative charges on the adsorbent surface that is likely to attract the positively charged chromium ions to bind to its surface resulting in increased uptake. At low pH, the approach of positively charged Cr cations will be inhibited due to the overall surface positive charge caused by protons that would restrict access to ligands by metal ions as a result of repulsive forces. It is also likely that these protons will compete with Cr ions for the ligands and thereby decrease the interaction of metal ions. In order to prove the aforesaid fact, PZC for celluse fiber were determined. It clearly interprets that to ensure a completely negatively charged surface on the biosorbents, the pH must be


60

The values of the model constants for different operating parameters is tabulated in Tab. 3(a) and 3(b). The value of the experimental equilibrium adsorption expeq was

determined by the intercept of adsorption isotherm and the overall mass balance equation. The calculated value of eq i.e. e cal

q from the pseudo first-order model was obtained through an iterative procedure such that the value of 2R is maximized whereas the model parameters of eq. (7) was determined using linear regression technique. The higher values of R2 for pseudo second-order kinetic model implied that the biosorption process is best described this approach. Non linear regression of original form of the pseudo second order expression

22

21e

te

K q tqK q t

(8)

was stated to be more appropriate. The non-linear optimization method available with Microsoft Excel 2007 version (solver) was used in this study to determine the model constants of the above equation. The value of e calq and 2K for garlic skin are shown within the

bracket of Tab. 3(b). It is seen that there is no significant difference in the value of the parameters obtained with the two techniques. Similar result was also obtained with onion skin biosorbent.

The intrinsic rate of reaction refers only to the rate at which one chemical species is converted into another. The measurement of this can be achieved by making the process independent of physical processes such as heat, mass and momentum transfer. The change in the value of

2K with variation of biomass amount and initial feed concentration suggests that it is not the intrinsic reaction rate. Qualitatively, increase of metal loading in biomass implies greater penetration of the sorbate into the adsorbent thereby increasing the intraparticle mass transfer resistance.

The weight of the biomass gives good representation

of the external surface area. As W tends to infinity, the product of bulk phase mass transfer coefficient and surface area also tends towards infinite and the mass transfer resistance for transport of metal ion from the bulk solution to the biosorbent-solution interface towards zero. Further the intraparticle mass transfer resistance can be neglected as the reaction can be assumed to occur at the surface of the biosorbent itself. The value of 2K in absence of mass transfer resistances was obtained from the intercept of the curve shown on extrapolation to1/ 0W (W is infinite). The desired value of 2K

for onion and garlic scale are 0.07 mg/g/min ( 2R = 0.94) and 0.075 mg/g/min ( 2R =0.89) respectively.

3.6. Thermodynamic parameters The chemical equilibrium constant of a reversible reaction can be related to temperature by the following expression:

0 0 0ln aK G RT H RT S R (10)

where aK is the equilibrium constant, oG is the

change in standard Gibbs free energy, oS is the standard entropy change, oH is the standard enthalpy change, T is the temperature and R is the universal gas constant. The free energy change for the process was determined by using the equilibrium constants obtained from Langmuir isotherm model. Thermodynamic parameters of oH and oS were obtained from the slope and intercept of the plot between ln aK versus

1 T .

The negative values of Gibbs free energy (~ -16.0 kJ/mol) indicated that the feasibility of the process. Standard enthalpy change for cellulose was estimated to be 11.8 kJ/mol respectively. The corresponding standard change in entropy was 0.095 kJ/mol/K respectively. The positive values of oH for Chromium removal indicated that the metal adsorption process was endothermic in nature. The positive values of oS for Chromium with adsorbent showed an increased randomness at solid solutions interface during the adsorption of Cr on the waste biomass (Basci et al., 2009; Chauhan et al., 2005). 4 Conclusions The study indicated that natural fiber grafted co-polymer is efficient adsorbents for removal of Chromium from aqueous solution. The high adsorptive capacity of this cellulose fiber implies that it can be looked as an alternative to costly adsorbents like activated carbon, resins etc. The proposed new technique for estimation of reaction rate constant in absence of mass transfer resistances provide a means of delineating the influence of reaction kinetics and diffusional resistances on the uptake rate and result in improving contactor design. References Amrita Das Gupta1, Swastika N. Das, Salim A.

Dhundasi1 and Kusal K. Das1, Effect of Garlic (Alliumsativum) on Heavy Metal (Nickel II and ChromiumVI) Induced Alteration of Serum Lipid Profile in Male Albino Rats, Environmental Research and Public Health 2005, ISSN 1661-7827.

Das K. K, Gupta A.D., Dhundasi S. A., Patil A.M., Das

S. N., Ambekar J. G., Effect of Lascorbic acid on nickel induced alteration in serum lipid profiles and liver histopathology in rats, J. Basic. Clin. Physiol. Pharmacol. 2006, 17 (1), 29-44.


58

onion skin, palm kernel husk, peanut skin, pinus bark, corncobs, cane stick, jute stem, banana fiber, papyrus, rapia, etc., have been tested as efficient adsorbent for heavy metal ion, especially adsorbent for divalent metal cation (Espinosa et al., 2001; Nada et al., 2006). But the raw fiber material used in this study was purchased from Himachal Krishi Vishwavidyalaya, Palampur, H. P, and India. The purification of the fiber was done by the soxhlet extraction with acetone for 72 hours and the resultant fiber was dried at room temperature. Acrylonitrile (AN), zinc nitrate, magnesium nitrate, dimethyl formamide (DMF), acetone, nickel nitrate ( S.D. Fine), ethyl acylate (EA), ceric ammonium nitrate (Merck, India) and Nitric acid (Nice Chemical Ltd) were used as received.

The experimental studies were carried out in

duplicate. Point of zero charge (PZC) was determined using the mass titration method described by Basci et al., 2009. Initially three aqueous solutions were prepared of pH 3, 6 and 10. Increasing amount of biosorbents (0.05%, 0.1%, 0.5%, 1.0%, 3.0%, 7.0% and 10.0% w/w) were added in 20ml of each solutions and allowed to equilibrate in a temperature controlled shaker incubator for 24h in 30ºC and 120 rpm. The equilibrium pH was measured for each solution using a digital pH meter. The pH versus biosorbent mass curve gives the PZC range for both the biosorbents.

Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) was

used to identify the chemical groups present in the fiber. Solutions of NaHCO3 (0.1 mol/L), Na2CO3 (0.05 mol/L), NaOH (0.1 mol/L), and HCl (0.1 mol/L) were prepared with deionized water. 1 g of cellulose were added to a volume of 50mL of these solutions and shaken at 100 rpm for 24h to reach equilibrium. After filtration, excess of base or acid was then determined by back titration using NaOH (0.1 mol/L) and HCl (0.1 mol/L) solutions. 2.2. Biosorption studies The copper solution was prepared by dissolving its sulfate salt (Merck) in deionised water. Equilibrium sorption studies were conducted in 250 mL Erlenmeyer flask in a temperature controlled shaker incubator at 120 rpm for 24 h. For these studies, 0.2 g cellulose fiber contacted with the desired concentrations of chromium solution at defined initial pH and temperature.

Batch studies were carried out in a vessel of diameter 12 cm with 500 mL of solution and specified amount of biosorbent. A mechanical stirrer (1500 rpm) was used to agitate the system. Concentration of chromium metal ions in the solution was measured by Atomic absorption spectrophotometer (Perkin Elmer A Analyst 200). The amount of metal uptake by the biosorbent was calculated using the following equation: t i tq V C C W (1)

where tq and tC is amount of metal ion biosorbed per gram of biomass and solution concentration at time t ,

iC is the initial solution concentration, V is the volume

of metal solution and W is the weight of biosorbent. 3 Results and discussion 3.1. Characterization of biosorbent The IR spectrum of the grafted copolymer was determined by using KBr Technique. When the traditional KBr pellet technique is used we obtain information about both the polymer grafted on the surface of the fibrils and also about the polymer grafted inside the fibrils. The attenuated total reflectance technique (ATR) is a useful method to detect the surface structural Mao et al. In special case FTIR may also be used to study the form of binding of the adsorbed species to the poymer. The FTIR spectrum of grafted adsorbent was shown in Figure 1.

Fig. 1: FTIR spectrum of grafted adsorbent 3.2. Effect of pH The effect of initial pH on adsorption capacity of cellulose is shown in the Fig. 3. Diluted HCl was added to the solutions to get the desired pH values. The uptake increased with change in initial pH from 3 to 5.3 for the adsorbent. Experiments were restricted to pH 5.3 as at higher pH chromium precipitates out in the form of insoluble chromium hydroxide.

An increase in pH results in more negative charges on the adsorbent surface that is likely to attract the positively charged chromium ions to bind to its surface resulting in increased uptake. At low pH, the approach of positively charged Cr cations will be inhibited due to the overall surface positive charge caused by protons that would restrict access to ligands by metal ions as a result of repulsive forces. It is also likely that these protons will compete with Cr ions for the ligands and thereby decrease the interaction of metal ions. In order to prove the aforesaid fact, PZC for celluse fiber were determined. It clearly interprets that to ensure a completely negatively charged surface on the biosorbents, the pH must be


59

maintained above 4.75 to achieve the maximum adsorption. 3.3. Biosorption isotherms The adsorption isotherm for ethyl acrylate at temperatures of 293 K, 303 K and 313 K. The Langmuir, Freundlich, Temkin and D-R isotherm models were employed to describe the uptake of Chromium by natural fiber grafted co-polymer. Langmuir

max (1 )e L e L eq q K C K C (2) (2)

Freundlich 1/ne F eq K C

(3) Temkin

lne eRTq ACb

(4)

Dubinin-Radushkevich

2

max expeq q (5) In the above equations eq and eC is the amount of the metal adsorbed per unit mass of adsorbent and metal concentration in the solution at equilibrium respectively,

maxq is the Langmuir constant related to the maximum

monolayer adsorption capacity and LK is the Langmuir constant related to the affinity of the binding sites. The terms FK and n in Eq. (3) are related to binding energy and adsorption capacity and to the intensity of adsorption respectively. In Eq. (4), B = (RT/b) is related to the heat of the adsorption process. A and B are Temkin constants. For D-R model in Eq.5, β is a coefficient related to the mean free energy of adsorption (mol2 J-2), and

ln 1 1 eRT C is the Polanyi potential (J mol-1). The estimated value of these constants obtained by fitting the model expressions to the experimental data along with 2R are listed in Tab. 1. Out of the 4 isotherm models studied, the higher values of 2R obtained from the fitting to Langmuir and Freundlich isotherm expression indicate that these give good fit to the Table 3(a) Pseudo-first-order Kinetic rate constants related to the biosorption of chromium biosorption onto Cellulose fiber Table 1 compares the values of maxq obtained in this study with that of other biosorbents reported in the literature. It is seen that the adsorption capacity of the skin of onion and garlic are higher than that of many other biosorbents for this metal ion.

Table 1. Comparison of Langmuir based maximum adsorption capacity of several biosorbents for Cr (IV) adsorption 3.4. Biosorption kinetics studies Experiments were carried out to obtain the variation of adsorbed amount with time at different biomass amount (initial metal concentration = 50 mg/L) and initial concentration of metal ion (biosorbent = 2g) at 303 K. 3.5.1. Intrinsic rate constant

Table 2. Pseudo-second-order Kinetic rate constants related to the biosorption of Chromium biosorption onto grafted fiber The kinetic data for the studied biosorption process was analyzed by fitting pseudo first-order and pseudo second-order kinetic model to the experimental data. The linear form of the model expression is: Pseudo first-order model 10 10 1log 1t e eq q og q K t (6) Pseudo second-order model

221t e et q t q K q (7)

where 1K and 2K are the rate constant of the pseudo first-order and second-order equation respectively.

Celluose fiber

Metal concentration (mg L-1)

(qe)cal (mg g-

1)

(qe)exp (mg g-1)

K2 (mg g-1 min-1)

R2

20 3.61 3.38 0.114 0.999 35 7.54 7.5 0.061 0.999 50 10.1 10.8 0.05 0.999

Biosorbent dosage (g)

0.5 28.2 25.9 0.013 0.999 0.75 21.3 20.5 0.018 0.998

1 18.2 16.4 0.021 0.999 1.5 12.9 13 0.035 0.998 2 10.1 10.8 0.05 0.999 3 8.1 8.1 0.047 0.999

Biosorbent qmax (mg/g) (T (K)/pH)

Reference

Tectona grandis 15.4 (298/5.0) [3] Fish scale 58.5 ( -/ -) [8] Cellulose 80.6 (303/5.3) Present study

Wheat shell 8.3 (298/5.0) [10] Coffee husk 7.5 (298/4.0) [11]

Sugar beet pulp 31.4 (298/4.0) [21]


60




22

21e

te

K q tqK q t

(8)












1 T .






60




22

21e

te

K q tqK q t

(8)












1 T .






60




22

21e

te

K q tqK q t

(8)












1 T .






61

Das, K. K.., Das, S. N., Dasgupta, S., The influence of ascorbic acid on nickel induced hepatic lipid

peroxidation in rats. J. Basic. Clin. Physiol. Pharmacol. 2001, 12, 187-194.

Kaufman, D. B., DiNicola, W., McIntosh, R., Acute

potassium dichromate poisoning: Treated by peritoneal dialysis. Am. J. Dis. Child. 1970, 119, 374-376.

Doreswamy, K.., Shrilatha, B., Rajeshkumar, T.,

Muralidhara.: Nickel induced oxidative stress in testis of Mice: Evidence of DNA damage and Genotoxic effects. J. Androl. 2004, 25, 996–1003.

Nada, A.M.A., N. El-Wakeel. Molecular structure and

ion exchange of amidoximated cellulosic materials. J. Appl Poly Sci. 2006, 102, 303- 311.

Sokker, H.H., Ghafar, A.M., A. M. A. Nada. Synthesis

and characterization of radiation grafted copolymer for removal of nonionic organic contaminants. J.Appl Poly Sci. 2006, 100, 3589 -3595.

Chauhan, G.S., Singh, B., Chauhan, S., Verma, M. Mahajan, S., Sorption of some metal ions on cellulose based hydrogel. Desilination. 2005, 187, 217 -224.

Nada, M.A., Alkady, M.Y., Fekry, H.M., Synthesis and characterization of grafted cellulose for use in water and metal ions sorption. Biores. Technol. 2007, 3, 46- 59.

Wasetwar, K.L., Atif, M., Prasad, B., Mishra, I.M.,

Adsorption of Zinc using Tea Factory Waste: Kinetics, Equilibrium and Thermodynamics, Clean 2008, 36, 320 – 329.

Espinosa, V., Esparza, M.H., Ruiz-Treviňo, F.A.,

Adsorptive properties of fish scales of Oreochromis Niloticus (Mojarra Tilapia) for metallic ion removal from waste water, Ind. Eng. Chem. Res. 2001, 40, 3563-3569.

Basci, N., Kocadagistan, E., Kocadagistan, B.,

Biosorption of copper (II) from aqueous solutions by wheat shell, J. Hazard. Mater. 2009, 164, 1372-1378.

Rahmana, M.S., Islamb, M.R., Effects of pH on

isotherms modeling for Cu(II) ions adsorption using maple wood sawdust, J. Chem. Eng. 2009, 149, 273–280.

Kumar, P., Dhara, S.S., Binding metal ions with polymerized onion skin, J. Poly. Sci. 1981, 19, 397-402.

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Bending Behavior of Semi-Continuous Prefabricated Profiled Steel Sheeting (PSSDB) Floor Panels

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Norhaiza Nordin1*, Wan Hamidon Wan Badaruzzaman2, Nasly Mohd Ali1, Wan Mansor Wan Muhamad3, Khairunnisa Muthusamy1

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Norhaiza Nordin1*, Wan Hamidon Wan Badaruzzaman2, Nasly Mohd Ali1, Wan Mansor Wan Muhamad3, Khairunnisa Muthusamy1

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Books:

Patrick Lavin.(2003) A Practical Guide to Design, Production and Maintenance for Engineers and Architects. London: Spoon Press, 125 pp.

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Johan, R. (1999). Fire Management Plan for the Peat Swamp Forest Reserve of North Selangor and Pahang. In Chin T.Y. and Havmoller, P. (eds) Sustainable Management of Peat Swamp Forests in Peninsular Malaysia Vol II: Impacts.Kuala Lumpur: Forestry Department Malaysia, 81-147.

Journal:

Mead, S.P. (1997). Project-specific intranets for construction teams. Project Management Journal, 28(3):44-51.

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Portela, A. (1992) Dual Boundary Element Increment Analysis of Crack Growth. Ph.D Thesis, Wessex Institute of Technology, Southampton, 156 pp.

Proceedings:

Diah, A.B.M and Nuruddin M.F (1998) Concrete: Why Curing So Important for Engineers and Architects to Produce Durable Concrete Structures. Proceedings of 16th Conference of ASEAN Federation of Engineering Organization. Pampanga, Philippinnes, 51-60.

Article from Website:

Chan J.K., Tam, C.M., Chung, R.K (2005). Engineering, Construction and Architectural Management [online]. 12(2). Available from: fulltext/ document109.pdf/[Accessed 20 February 2005].

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International Journal of Civil Engineering & Geo-Environment 2 (2011) __________________________________________________________________________________________________________________


Bending Behavior of Semi-Continuous Prefabricated Profiled Steel Sheeting (PSSDB) Floor Panels (Title:14 point, left justified) Norhaiza Nordin1*, Wan Hamidon Wan Badaruzzaman2, Nasly Mohd Ali1, Wan Mansor Wan Muhamad3, Khairunnisa Muthusamy1 (12 point) 1Faculty of Civil Engineering and Earth Resources, Universiti Malaysia Pahang, Malaysia (8 point) 2Faculty of Engineering and Built Environment, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, Selangor, Malaysia 3Mechanical and Manufacturing Section, UniKL Malaysia France Institute, Selangor, Malaysia __________________________________________________________________________________

____________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ _______________________ ______________________________________________________________________

1. Introduction (10 point) Profiled Steel Sheeting Dry Board (PSSDB) floor panel is a composite of dry board and profiled steel sheeting screwed together by means of self-tapping, self-drilling shear connectors. When the two components are combined to form the panel, composite action takes place. This action depends on the shape, depth, thickness and the strength of the sheeting, the type, thickness and strength of the dry board, and the type and spacing of the connectors. The system has been successfully

implemented in many Malaysian construction projects which use locally available materials. The PSSDB panel system can also be used as walling and roofing unit in buildings. Studies have also been done to non-structural aspects as well, such as fire resistance performance, vibration, water proofing, finishes, sound properties, assembling techniques and cost.

Profiled Steel Sheeting Dry Board (PSSDB) floor panel is a composite of dry board and profiled steel sheeting screwed together by means of self-tapping, self-drilling shear connectors. The system has been successfully implemented in many Malaysian construction projects. Recently, the PSSDB system has been expanded to be an easy to assemble prefabricated floor for rural school cabin construction. An innovative prefabricated panel consists of three PSSDB parts which are then screwed together on site to form a semi-continuous panel has been proposed. This paper describes the three distinct parts of the panel, their assembly and the experiment to study the bending behavior of the panel. The semi-continuous panel performance was also compared to that of a continuous panel. All together, six 3.0 m span samples were tested under a uniformly distributed load until failure. The semi-continuous panels showed a two-phase behavior whilst the continuous panels showed a three-phase behavior under loading which were related to the time of cracking of the dry board and the buckling of the profiled steel sheeting. The mid span deflections were recorded and used to determine the stiffness of the panels. Results showed that the stiffness of the semi-continuous panels were half of that of the continuous panels. It can be concluded that the discontinued spanning of the profiled steel sheeting has severely reduced the overall semi-continuous panel stiffness. The 25 screws used in the 0.6 m middle connecting panel had shown to be quite insufficient to hold the whole semi continuous panel together. Therefore, the addition of screws with closer spacing is recommended to increase the panel stiffness.(9 point, not exceeding 250 words)

Keywords: (max of 5) Prefabricated (9 point, left justified) Bending Stiffness Dryboard Steel sheeting

International Journal of Civil Engineering and Geo-

Environment

Journal homepage: http://ijceg.ump.edu.my ISSN:21802742


International Journal of Civil Engineering & Geo-Environment 2 (2011) __________________________________________________________________________________________________________________


Bending Behavior of Semi-Continuous Prefabricated Profiled Steel Sheeting (PSSDB) Floor Panels (Title:14 point, left justified) Norhaiza Nordin1*, Wan Hamidon Wan Badaruzzaman2, Nasly Mohd Ali1, Wan Mansor Wan Muhamad3, Khairunnisa Muthusamy1 (12 point) 1Faculty of Civil Engineering and Earth Resources, Universiti Malaysia Pahang, Malaysia (8 point) 2Faculty of Engineering and Built Environment, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, Selangor, Malaysia 3Mechanical and Manufacturing Section, UniKL Malaysia France Institute, Selangor, Malaysia __________________________________________________________________________________

____________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ _______________________ ______________________________________________________________________

1. Introduction (10 point) Profiled Steel Sheeting Dry Board (PSSDB) floor panel is a composite of dry board and profiled steel sheeting screwed together by means of self-tapping, self-drilling shear connectors. When the two components are combined to form the panel, composite action takes place. This action depends on the shape, depth, thickness and the strength of the sheeting, the type, thickness and strength of the dry board, and the type and spacing of the connectors. The system has been successfully

implemented in many Malaysian construction projects which use locally available materials. The PSSDB panel system can also be used as walling and roofing unit in buildings. Studies have also been done to non-structural aspects as well, such as fire resistance performance, vibration, water proofing, finishes, sound properties, assembling techniques and cost.

Profiled Steel Sheeting Dry Board (PSSDB) floor panel is a composite of dry board and profiled steel sheeting screwed together by means of self-tapping, self-drilling shear connectors. The system has been successfully implemented in many Malaysian construction projects. Recently, the PSSDB system has been expanded to be an easy to assemble prefabricated floor for rural school cabin construction. An innovative prefabricated panel consists of three PSSDB parts which are then screwed together on site to form a semi-continuous panel has been proposed. This paper describes the three distinct parts of the panel, their assembly and the experiment to study the bending behavior of the panel. The semi-continuous panel performance was also compared to that of a continuous panel. All together, six 3.0 m span samples were tested under a uniformly distributed load until failure. The semi-continuous panels showed a two-phase behavior whilst the continuous panels showed a three-phase behavior under loading which were related to the time of cracking of the dry board and the buckling of the profiled steel sheeting. The mid span deflections were recorded and used to determine the stiffness of the panels. Results showed that the stiffness of the semi-continuous panels were half of that of the continuous panels. It can be concluded that the discontinued spanning of the profiled steel sheeting has severely reduced the overall semi-continuous panel stiffness. The 25 screws used in the 0.6 m middle connecting panel had shown to be quite insufficient to hold the whole semi continuous panel together. Therefore, the addition of screws with closer spacing is recommended to increase the panel stiffness.(9 point, not exceeding 250 words)

Keywords: (max of 5) Prefabricated (9 point, left justified) Bending Stiffness Dryboard Steel sheeting

International Journal of Civil Engineering and Geo-

Environment

Journal homepage: http://ijceg.ump.edu.my ISSN:21802742


Among the advantages of using this system are: 1. Light weight. One typical floor panel with a span of 2.4 m is around 70 kg and can be carried by two workers only. 2. Simple and easy to construct. It doesn’t need formwork or prop and can be built by unskilled workers. 3. Save space as the panels can be easily stacked. 4. Shorter construction time 5. Less dependent on heavy equipment on-site 6. Reduced on-site labor time and costs. 7. Less wastage of materials Studies on the behaviour of the PSSDB system as

floor panels have been reported in earlier publications (Wright et al (1989), Ahmed (1999), Ahmed et al (2002), Wan Badaruzzaman et al (2001a), (2001b), (2003a), (2003b)). A typical PSSSDB panel is shown in Figure 1.

Figure 1: A typical PSSDB panel (10 point)

Recently, the PSSDB system has been expanded to

be an easy to assemble prefabricated floor for rural school cabin construction.

This new system consists of two PSSDB floor panels laid end-to-end on three beams. A shorter connecting panel is then screwed in the middle to transform the two end-to-end simply supported panels, into a semi-continuous configuration as shown in Figure 2 and Figure 3.

Figure 2: Semi-continuous panel with the connecting panel rose vertically

Figure 3: The schematic side view of a semi-continuous panel

This type of arrangement allows for shorter panels

design which is easier to transport and manage. This is especially beneficial to the construction in rural areas which has limited infrastructural facilities.

1.1 Test Specimens Three semi-continuous and three continuous panels were fabricated and tested to failure. All the panels used 0.8 mm thick Peva 45 profiled steel sheeting and 18 mm thick Cemboard dry board.

The semi-continuous panel consists of two 1.5 m

profiled steel sheetings which are screwed to two 1.2 m dry boards and a 0.6 m middle connecting panel as shown in Figure 4.

Figure 4: Close-up view of the connecting panel

Dryboard board

Self-tapping screws

Steel sheeting

1.2 m 0.6 m 1.2 m

Dry board Profiled steel sheeting

The stiffeners of the profiled steel sheeting are first removed, leaving only the troughs which are then nailed to the dry boards to form the connecting panel. The connecting panel is then screwed to the two 1.5 m panels to form a semi-continuous 3.0 m panel. The screw spacing for the two 1.5 m parts is 200 mm whilst the screw spacing for the connecting panel is 100 mm.

On the other hand, the continuous panel is made up of

a single, 3.0 m long profiled steel sheeting screwed to two 1.5 m and a middle 0.6 m dry boards.

2. Testing and Observation

Both the semi-continuous and continuous panels were mounted on three supports with a distance of 1.5m between them. A uniformly distributed loading was simulated by arranging eleven rectangular hollow sections to form four line loads as shown in Figure 5.

Figure 5: The semi-continuous panel loaded until failure For the semi-continuous panel testing, the deflections for both middle spans were found to be comparable up to the ultimate load. When the load reached the ultimate load, the local buckling of the steel sheeting was detected under the rectangular hollow sections and the loading arrangement started to tilt to one side. Additional loading caused screw failure which led one of the 1.5 m profiled steel sheeting to detach from the connecting panel. The panel then behaved nonlinearly before it finally failed.

Figure 6 shows the continuous panel under loading. In the linear region, the panel deflected in a balanced manner for both middle spans. However, at the loading of 13 kN/m2, the profiled steel sheeting web on the center support started to cripple. At the loading of 20 kN/m2, the dry board above the middle support cracked.

Figure 6: The continuous panel loaded until failure

3. Test Results and Analysis The comparison between the behavior of the total six semi-continuous and continuous panels can be seen from the load versus deflection graph of Figure 7.

Figure 7: Graph of load versus deflection The behavior of the semi continuous panels can be

divided into two phases. The first phase shows a linear load-deflection behavior up to the ultimate loading of 14 kN/m2. All three samples behaved very similarly in this region. However in the non-linear phase, the samples showed varied behaviors after the onset of the local buckling. The starting location of the local buckling was on either span which was most likely triggered by the imperfections of the profiled steel sheeting.

The continuous panel follows a three-phase

behavior. The first is the linear phase up to the loading of 13 kN/m2, The second phase is from the loadings of 14 kN/m2 to 20 kN/m2, where the slope of the load-deflection graph decreases due to the web crippling of the profiled steel sheeting on the middle support. The third phase, which happens after the ultimate load of 20

Continuous panel Semi-continuous panel

The stiffeners of the profiled steel sheeting are first removed, leaving only the troughs which are then nailed to the dry boards to form the connecting panel. The connecting panel is then screwed to the two 1.5 m panels to form a semi-continuous 3.0 m panel. The screw spacing for the two 1.5 m parts is 200 mm whilst the screw spacing for the connecting panel is 100 mm.

On the other hand, the continuous panel is made up of

a single, 3.0 m long profiled steel sheeting screwed to two 1.5 m and a middle 0.6 m dry boards.

2. Testing and Observation

Both the semi-continuous and continuous panels were mounted on three supports with a distance of 1.5m between them. A uniformly distributed loading was simulated by arranging eleven rectangular hollow sections to form four line loads as shown in Figure 5.

Figure 5: The semi-continuous panel loaded until failure For the semi-continuous panel testing, the deflections for both middle spans were found to be comparable up to the ultimate load. When the load reached the ultimate load, the local buckling of the steel sheeting was detected under the rectangular hollow sections and the loading arrangement started to tilt to one side. Additional loading caused screw failure which led one of the 1.5 m profiled steel sheeting to detach from the connecting panel. The panel then behaved nonlinearly before it finally failed.

Figure 6 shows the continuous panel under loading. In the linear region, the panel deflected in a balanced manner for both middle spans. However, at the loading of 13 kN/m2, the profiled steel sheeting web on the center support started to cripple. At the loading of 20 kN/m2, the dry board above the middle support cracked.

Figure 6: The continuous panel loaded until failure

3. Test Results and Analysis The comparison between the behavior of the total six semi-continuous and continuous panels can be seen from the load versus deflection graph of Figure 7.

Figure 7: Graph of load versus deflection The behavior of the semi continuous panels can be

divided into two phases. The first phase shows a linear load-deflection behavior up to the ultimate loading of 14 kN/m2. All three samples behaved very similarly in this region. However in the non-linear phase, the samples showed varied behaviors after the onset of the local buckling. The starting location of the local buckling was on either span which was most likely triggered by the imperfections of the profiled steel sheeting.

The continuous panel follows a three-phase

behavior. The first is the linear phase up to the loading of 13 kN/m2, The second phase is from the loadings of 14 kN/m2 to 20 kN/m2, where the slope of the load-deflection graph decreases due to the web crippling of the profiled steel sheeting on the middle support. The third phase, which happens after the ultimate load of 20

Continuous panel Semi-continuous panel

kN/m2 until failure, is due to the cracking of the dry board of the connecting panel.

The semi-continuous panel has also shown to have

only half of the stiffness of a continuous panel as evident in Table 1.

Table 1: Stiffness values comparison (10 point)

Sample panel Stiffness (kNm2/m)

Semi-continuous 28.08 Continuous 54.02

4. Conclusion The characteristics of the panel continuity depends mostly on the ability of the connecting panel screws to hold the two overlapping profiled steel sheetings. The 25 screws used in the 0.6 m middle connecting panel had shown to be quite insufficient to hold the whole semi continuous panel together. It can be concluded that the discontinued spanning of the profiled steel sheeting has reduced the semi-continuous panel stiffness to half of that of the continuous panel. Therefore, the addition of screws with closer spacing is recommended to increase the semi-continuous panel stiffness. References (10 point) Okada .R.W (2003) Exploring the Influence of Design

Elements in the Comfortability, International Conference on Human- Computer Interaction.

Powers, Tom (1988) Introduction to Management in The

Hospitality Management, Fifth Edition, John Willey & Sons,Inc. New York.

M Alice T (2002) University of Toronto, News @UofT

Purchase of the hotel for student residence. L.Wilson Jr. (2008) Handbook on Tourism, Golden

Books Centre Sdn. PJ Bhd.Malaysia. Wan Badaruzzaman, W.H., Shodiq, H.M., Zain, M.F.M,

Ismail, A. and Sahari, J. (2001a) Fire Resistance of Loaded Profiled Steel Sheet Dry Board (PSSDB) Flooring System, Proceedings Construction Technology Conference, Sabah. Malaysia, 11-13 October.

Wan Badaruzzaman, W.H., Akhand, A.M., Shodiq, H.M., Khalim, A.R. and Taib, K.A. (2001b) Development and Aplication of Composite profiled Steel Sheeting Dry Board Floor System. Proceedings Construction Technology Conference, Sabah. Malaysia, 11-13 October

Wan Badaruzzaman, W.H., Zain, M.F.M., Shodiq, H.M.,

Akhand, A.M. and Sahari, J. (2003a) Fire Resistance Performance of Profiled Steel Sheet Dry Board (PSSDB) Flooring Panel System, Journal of Building and Environment, 38(7), pp. 907-912,

Wan Badaruzzaman, W.H., Zain, M.F.M., Akhand, A.M.

and Ahmed, E. (2003b) Dry Board as Load Bearing Element in the Profiled Steel Sheet Dry Board Floor Panel System - Structural Performance and Applications, Journal of Construction and Building Materials, 17(4), pp. 289-297,

Wright, H.D., Evans, H.R. & Burt, C.A. Profiled steel

sheet/dry boarding composite floors. The Structural Engineer

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