Appendices

APPENDIX 1. ACRONYMS OFPOLYMER NAMES

Aery lonitrile-butadiene-styrene

Acrylonitrile-butadiene rubber

Acrylic-styrene-acrylonitrile

Cellulose acetate

Cellulose nitrate

Chlorinated polyethylene

Oiethyl triamine

Ethylene-propylene-dienemonomer rubber

Ethylene-vinyl acetate

High density polyethylene

High impact polystyrene

High modulus polyethylene

Hydroxy propyl cellulose

High temperature nylon

Liquid crystal polymer

Low density polyethylene

Polyacetal (see Polyoxymethylene)

Polyacrylonitrile

Polyamide (nylon)

Polybutadiene

Poly(butylene terephthalate)

Polycarbonate

Poly(eth er ether ketone)

Polyetherimide

Polyethersulfone

Polyethylene

Poly(ethylene oxide)

ABS

ABR

ASA

CA

CN

CPE

OETA

EPOM

EVA

HOPE

HIPS

HMPE

HPC

HTN

LCP

LDPE

PAN

PA

PB

PBT

PC

PEEK

PEl

PES

PE

PEO

Poly(ethylene terephthalate)

Polyimide

Poly(methyl methacrylate)

Polyoxymethylene

Polypropylene

Poly(phenylene oxide)

Poly(phenylene sulfide)

Poly(p-phenylene benzobisoxazole)

Poly(p-phenylene benzobisthiazole)

Poly(p-phenylene terephthalamide)

Poly(p-xylylene)

Polystyrene

Polysulfone

Poly( tetrafluoroethylene)

Polyurethane

Poly(vinyl acetate)

Poly(vinyl alcohol)

Poly(vinyl chloride)

Poly(vinylidene chloride)

Poly(vinylidene fluoride)

Resorcinol-formaldehyde latex

Styrene-acrylonitrile copolymer

Styrene-butadiene rubber

Styrene-butadiene-styrene

PET

PI

PMMA

POM

PP

PPO

PPS

PBZOor PBO

PBZT

PPTA

PPX

PS

PSO

PTFE

PUR

PVAC

PVOH

PVC

PVDC

PVDF

RFL

SAN

SBR

SBS

506

APPENDIX II. ACRONYMS OFTECHNIQUES

Appendices

Note: The same acronym is often used to denotethe microscope (e.g., SEM , "scanning electronmicroscope") or the microscopy (e.g., SEM,"scanning electron microscopy").

Analytical electron microscope

Atomic force microscope

Backscattered electron imaging

Confocal scanning lasermicroscope

Confocal scanning opticalmicroscope

Differential interferencecontrast

Energy dispersive x-rayspectroscopy

Field emission scanningelectron microscope

Frictional force microscope

High pressure scanningelectron microscope

High resolution scanningelectron microscope

High resolution transmissionelectron microscope

Infrared spectroscopy

Laser confocal scanningmicroscope

Lateral force microscope

Magnetic force microscope

Microdiffraction

Near-field optical microscope

Nuclear magnetic resonance

Optical microscope

Phase contrast microscope

Polarized light microscope

Scanning electron microscope

Scanning probe microscope

AEM

AFM

BEl

CSLM(also LCSM)

CSOM

DIC

EDS

FESEM

FFM

HPSEM

HRSEM

HRTEM

IR

LCSM

LFM

MFM

.udiffNFOM

NMR

OM

PC

PLM

SEM

SPM

Scanning thermal microscope

Scanning transmission electronmicroscope

Scanning tunneling microscope

Scanning tunnelingspectroscopy

Secondary electron imaging

Selected area electrondiffraction

Small angle neutron scattering

Small angle x-ray scattering

Transmission electronmicroscope

Conventional TEM

Wavelength dispersive x-rayspectroscopy

Wide angle x-ray scattering

SThM

STEM

STM

STS

SEI

SAED

SANS

SAXS

TEM

CTEM

WDS

WAXS

Appendices

APPENDIX III. MANMADE POLYMER FIBERS

507

Fiber type

Cellulosic

Noncellulosic

Generic name

AcetateRayonTriacetate

AcrylicAramidCopolyesterFluorocarbonNylonPolybenzimidazole (PBI)Polyester (PET, PEN)PolyethylenePolypropyleneSpandexUltrahigh molecular weight PE (UHMWPE)

508 Appendices

APPENDIX IV. COMMON COMMERCIAL POLYMERS ANDTRADENAMES FOR PLASTICS, FILMS, AND ENGINEERING RESINS*

Generic name Tradename Manufacturer Typical end uses

Acrylonitrile-butadiene- Novodur Bayer Automotive, appliance housings, furniture,styrene (ABS) Magnum Dow construction, consumer electronics, pipes

Cycolac SABIC

Epoxy, rubber toughened Dow Paints, coatings, adhesives, pipes, circuit boardsepoxies BASF

High impact polystyrene Styron Dow Automotive, appliance housings, furniture, toys,(HIPS) packaging, housewares, audio and video cassettes,

dinnerware, etc.

High density PE (HDPE) Dow Containers, pipes, fabricated parts

Low density PE (LDPE) Ultramid BASF Packaging, films for bags, stretch wrapDowEastman

Nylon: polymer and resin Vydyne Monsanto Carpet yarns, tire cords, automotive, electrical,Zytel DuPont cigarette lighters, sporting goods, brushesCelanese TiconaNylon 6,6

Polybutadiene in copolymers Tires, rubber articles, encapsulationand blends

Poly(butylene terephthalate) Celanex Ticona Automotive and other fabricated parts, bearings,Thermoplastic polyester Valox SABIC housings(PBT) BASF

Polycarbonate Lexan SABIC Bottles, safety glass, auto lenses, helmets, aircraftCalibre Dow interiors, optical media, sheets and profiles, electricalMakrolon Bayer and lighting

Toughened polycarbonates Cycoloy SABIC Automotive, vacuum cleaners, computer and businessPulse Dow machines, transportationXenoy SABIC(w/EPDM)

Poly(ether ether ketone) Victrex Victrex Manuf. Cable insulation, coatings, composites, automotive,(PEEK) industrial, chemical, aerospace, electrical/electronic

(E/E)

Polyetherimide) (PEl) Ultem SABIC Aerospace seats, lights, wiring, films, tapes

Polyether sulfone (PES) BASF Electrical applications, industrial, automotive,medical

Poly(ethylene Mylar DuPont Films for packaging, coatings, containers, bottlesterephthalate) (PET) THERMX Eastman

PET engineering resins Petlon Bayer Extrudates and moldings, E/E connectors, sockets,Rynite DuPont sensors, bottles, recording tapes, electrical insulationVandar TiconaImpet

Polyimide (PI) Kapton DuPont Printed circuit boards, insulation, films for motors,adhesives, electronics

Appendices 509

Generic name Tradename Manufacturer Typical end uses

Poly(methyl methacrylate) Plexiglas Arkema Camera lenses, airplane windows, signs, molded parts,PMMA sheeting

Polyoxymethylene (POM) Celcon Ticona Automotive fuel systems, E/E, plumbing, pump parts,Delrin Dupont appliances, electrical gears, zippers

Poly(phenylene oxide) Noryl SABlC Appliances, housings, pumps, shields, electronic(PPO) and PPO-HIPS componentsblends

Polypropylene (PP) Dow Carpet backing, ribbons, appliance housings,automotive, consumer durables, packaging, health

Polyphenylene sulfide (PPS) Fortron Ticona High temperature applications in electronics,Ryton Phillips housings, industrial, automotive, lamps, lighting

fixtures

Polystyrene (PS) Styron Dow Packaging, lighting, dinnerware, medical ware, toys,gloss laminations and bottles, disposables, egg cartons

Polysulfone (PSO) Udel Solvay Camera bodies, electrical connectors, light sockets,food appliance coatings, cookware, membranes

Poly(tetrafluoroethylene) Teflon DuPont Solvent resistant coatings, films, industrial, E/E parts,(PTFE) medical

Ethylene Automotive, architectural, chemical and food processtetrafluoroethylene (ETFE) industries

Poly(vinylidene fluoride) Kynar Arkema Pipe fittings, seals, lab ware, aircraft parts(PVDF)

Poly(vinyl acetate) (PVAC) Paints, adhesives, coatings

Poly(vinyl alcohol) (PVOH) Elvanol DuPont Coatings, adhesives, cosmetics

Poly(vinyl chloride) (PVC) Bayer Food wrap, furniture covers, flooring, footwear, pipes

Poly(vinylidene chloride) Saran Dow Films, protective packaging(PVDC)

Saturated styrene-butadiene- Kraton G Kraton Fabricated partsstyrene block copolymers Polymers

Styrene-acrylonitrile (SAN) Dentures, lenses, auto and other fabricated parts

Styrene-butadiene latex Adhesives, coatings, binders, textile finishes

Thermoplastic Dow Automotivepolyurethanes Bayer

Thermotropic aromatic Vectra Ticona High temperature fabricated parts, E/E interconnects,copolyesters (liquid crystal Xydar Solvay connectors, medical equipment, aerospace, automo-polymers) (LCP) Zenite Dupont tive and industrial parts

*Table is not intended to include all common commercial polymers, their trade names or manufacturers; for up to datemanufacturers, see company Web sites.

510

APPENDIX V. GENERALSUPPLIERS OF MICROSCOPYACCESSORIES

Suppliers of microscopes are found in Appen-dix VI and Appendix VII. These lists of suppli-ers are not intended to be all inclusive of U.S.and worldwide suppliers, nor are they intendedas a recommendation by the authors or thepublisher.

4pi Analysis, Inc.919-489-1757wwwApi.com

Advanced MicroBeam, Inc.330-394-1255www.advancedmicrobeam.com

Aetos Technologies, Inc.334-737-3127www.cytoviva.com

AlA International, Inc.781-545-7365www.ajaint.com

Allied High Tech Products800-675-1118www.aIliedhightech.com

Ascend Instruments503-614-8886www.ascendinstruments.com

BAL-TEC/RMC800-552-2262www.baItec-RMC.com

Buehler847-295-6500www.buehler.com

Cameca Instruments Inc.203-459-0623www.cameca.com

Delaware Diamond Knives, Inc.800-222-5143www.ddk.com

Denton Vacuum, USA856-439-9100www.dentonvacuum.com

Diatome U.S.215-412-8390www.emsdiasum.com

E.A. Fischione Instruments, Inc.724-325-5444www.fischione.com

Energy Beam Sciences, Inc.800-992-9037www.ebsciences.com

Electron Microscopy Sciences215-412-8400www.emsdiasum.com

Ernest F Fullam Inc.518-785-5533www.fullam.com

ETS-Lindgren630-307-7200www.ets-lindgren.com

Gamma Vacuum952-445-4841www.gammavacuum.com

Gatan, Inc.925-463-0200www.gatan.com

Geller MicroAnalytical Laboratory978-887-7000www.gellermicro.com

Hamamatsu Photonic Systems908-231-1116www.whatifcameras .com

IXRF Systems, Inc.281-286-6485www.ixrfsystems.com

Appendices

Appendices

Kurt J. Lesker Co.412-387-9200www.lesker.com

Ladd Research802-658-4961www.laddresearch.com

Lumenera Corporation613-736-4077www.lumenera.com

Mad City Labs, Inc.608-298-0855www.madcitylabs.com

McCrone Microscopes & Accessories800-622-8122www.mccrone.com/mac/

M.E . Taylor Engineering Inc.301-774-6246www.semsupplies.com

Micro Star Technologies936-291-6891www.microstartech.com

QuantomiX, Inc.480-205-4009www.quantomix.com

Scientific Instruments & Applications, Inc.770-232-7785www.sia-carn.com

SEMTech Solutions Inc.978-663-9822www.semtechsolutions.com

South Bay Technology, Inc .800-728-2233www.southbaytech.com

SPI Supplies610-436-5400www.2spi .com

Ted Pella, Inc.800-237-3526www.tedpella.com

Thermo Electron Corporation608-276-6100www.thermo.comlmicroanalysis

511

512

APPENDIX VI. SUPPLIERS OFOPTICAL AND ELECTRONMICROSCOPES,MICROANALYSIS EQUIPMENT,IMAGE ANALYSIS ANDPROCESSING

These lists of suppliers are not intended to beall inclusive of U.S. and worldwide suppliers,nor are they intended as a recommendation bythe authors or the publisher.

Carl Zeiss Microlmaging, Inc.800-233-2343www.zeiss.com/micro

EDAX Inc.201-529-6277www.edax.com

Evex Analytical609-252-9192www.evex.com

FEI Company503-726-7500www.feicompany.com

Hitachi High Technologies America, Inc.925-218-2800www.hitachi-hta.com

lEOL USA, Inc.978-536-5900www.jeolusa.com

Leica Microsystems Inc.800-248-0123www.leica-microsystems.com

Nikon Instruments Inc.631-547-8535 x8500www.nikonusa.com

Olympus Industrial America845-398-9480www.olympusamerica.com

Olympus Soft Imaging Solutions888-FIND-SISwww.soft-imaging.net

Appendices

Oxford Instruments America, Inc.978-369-9933www.oxinst.com

Princeton Gamma-Tech Instruments, Inc.609-924-7310www.pgt.com

SII NanoTechnology USA Inc818-280-0745www.siintusa.com

Tescan USA Inc .724-772-7433www.tescan-usa.com

Thermo Electron Corporation608-276-6100www.thermo.comlmicroanalysis

Appendices

APPENDIX VII. SUPPLIERS OFSCANNING PROBEMICROSCOPES AND RELATEDSUPPLIES

These lists of suppliers are not intended to beall inclusive of U.S. and worldwide suppliers,nor are they intended as a recommendation bythe authors or the publisher.

Agilent Technologies, Molecular Imaging480-756-5900www.molec.com

Ambios Technology, Inc.831-429-4200www.ambiostech.com

Anasys Instruments, Inc.805-455-5482www.anasysinstruments.com

Asylum Research888-472-2795www.AsylumResearch.com

BioForce Nanosciences, Inc.515-233-8333www.bioforcenano.com

BudgetSensors877-521-1108http://www.budgetsensors.co

Hysitron952-835-6366www.hysitron.com

Infinitesima Ltd44-1865-811-171www.infinitesima.com

Image Metrology877-521-1108www.imagemet.com

lEOL USA, Inc.978-536-5900www.jeolusa.com

MikroMasch503-598-9828www.spmtips.com

Nanonics Imaging Ltd.866-220-6828www.nanonics.co.il

Nanoscience Instruments, Inc.888-777-5573www.nanoscience.com

Nanosensors877-521-1108www.nanosensors.com

Nanotech AmericalNT-MDT972-954-8014www.nt-america.com

NanoWorld AG877-521-1108www.nanoworld.com

nPoint Inc608-310-8770www.npoint.com

Pacific Nanotechnology, Inc.800-246-3704www.pacificnano.com

PSIA408-986-1110www.psiainc.com

Team Nanotec805-696-9002www.team-nanotec.de

513

514

Veeco Instruments805-967-1400www.veeco.com

Veeco Probes805-696-9002www.veecoprobes.com

WITec Instruments Corp.877-948-3201; 217-351-9705www.witec-instruments.com

Appendices

Index

AAbbe offset errors 115Abbe theory of imaging 73Aberration(s) 73-75

chromatic 40,73-75,439in SEM 86-87spherical 73-75,439in TEM 74-77

Aberration corrected EM 41,438-440

Abrio 438ABS. See Acrylonitrile-

butadiene-styreneAcid etching 168,183-184

literature review 183Acrylics 200, 303

embedding media 151staining of 178

Acrylonitrile-butadiene-styrene(ABS) 2,8, 151, 309, 345

etching of 182, 184, 196staining methods 167-168

Acrylonitrile-chlorinatedpolyethylene-styrene(ACS) 309

Acrylonitrile-styrene-acrylate(ASA) 167

with polyurethanes 345staining methods for 167-168

Additives 11,217. See alsoComposites

Adhesion 8. See also AdhesivesAFM of 47, 102-105in composites 216-218,354,

362failure 367, 396in multi phase polymers 323,

338

Adhesive(s) 2,380-398interfaces by EFTEM 157"Post-it" 387RFL 268-269, 387

Adhesive forces in AFM109-114

AEM. See Analytical electronmicroscopy

Aerospace applications 7, 8,387,408

AFM. See Atomic forcemicroscopy

AM-AFM. See Amplitudemodulation AFM

Amorphous polymers 4, 8,316-318

diffraction from 69, 122oriented 14,35, 70structure in TEM 281-282

Amplitude modulation AFM(AM-AFM) 110

Analysis. See Analyticalmicroscopy, AnalyticalImaging, Electron Probe,Failure analysis, Imageanalysis, Microanalysis;Thermal analysis

Analytical electron microscopy(AEM) 44,55-56

Analytical imaging 459-468EELS 461-462FTIR microscopy 459-460imaging surface analysis

464-468Raman microscopy 460-461x-ray microscopy 462-464

Analytical microscopy 53-56,459-468

Anisotropic materials 6,35,81-83,270,315,403-404

Annealing 280, 288, 343Antistatic

additives 356devices 103, 154sprays 222

Anti-tank missiles 459Apertures

in illumination 78-80objective lens 30, 71-2optical sectioning and 454SAED 44, 71-2SEM final lens 36-42, 86-87

Aplanatic lenses 78Apochromats (Apo) 32aPP. See Atactic polypropyleneApplications of microscopy 47,

248-434adhesives 381-387composites 354-380emulsions 380-385engineering resins and plastics

308-354fibers 250-276films 276-294liquid crystalline polymers

398-418membranes 294-308

Aramid(s) 8,270-273,399etching 189-193fibers 255, 270, 272, 399-403,

409-411fractures in 255hollow fiber membranes from

305liquid crystalline polymers

270,272,399-402

516

Argonetching 189-193in sputter coating 202-206,

232Aromatic copolyesters 8, 399,

412high modulus fibers 409-412LCPs 399-412

Aromatic polyamides, SeeAramids

Aromatic polymers 1,119beam damage in 78

Artifacts 488-492in amorphous films 282from beam damage 121-123 ,

209-210charging effects and

207-209etching and 181-194,490in FESEM 210-211in microtomy 160in OM 489polishing and 142-143replication and 197,490in SEM 207-211 , 489-490in SPM 114-118,490-491in TEM 121-123 ,282,491from AFM tips 117-118,

490-491in x-ray microanalysis

491-492ASA. See

Acrylonitrile-styrene-acrylateAshing 357-358Atactic polymers, definition 3At actic polypropylene (aPP) 3,

159, 167At actic polystyrene (aPS) 4,

141,186,281Atomic force microscopy (AFM)

46-51,97-118, 140-142,481. See also Contactmode AFM; NoncontactAFM; Intermittentcontact mode AFM

Adhesive forces in 109-114applied to

fibers 271-272films 286-290latex 142, 389-393membranes 297mult iphase polymers 110-

111, 159,340nanocomposites 377,380

resins and plastics 311,331-337

single crystal 136calibration 58-59cantilevers 46-50, 97-99,

101-102conductive 48contact mode 47-48, 102-

105,442elasticity and 104-105,330,

451feedback in 47,113force-separation curves

101-102imaging 97-118indentation and 47,223in-situ deformation 223-225non-contact mode 47,49-50,

101,112probe-specimen interactions in

100-102properties summary 29Raman microscopy with 461image resolution 114and SAXS 500scanners 99-100, 114-115Introduction 46-51staining for 166video rate 445

Atomic number contrast (Z-contrast) 36-38,217,219,350,452,456. AlsoCompositional contrast

Atomic resolution 46, 103Attenuated total reflection

(ATR) 184,459Auger spectroscopy 498-499Automated SPM 449-451Axial fiber splitting 255

BBack focal plane 30,33,71,

78-79Backscattered electron imaging

(BEl)37-38,54,217,481 ,482

characteristics of 37-38, 55, 88contrast and 254compared to SEI 38-39fiber studies 254, 268mineral filled composites 351multiphase polymers 350

Backscattered electrons (BSE)37-38,88-92

Index

detectors for 37, 95directionality of 91

Backscattering coefficient 37, 89Bakelite 354Banded structures (liquid

crystalline polymers)402,405,412-413

Barrel temperature effects 312BCB. See BenzocyclobuteneBeam damage 118-124

artifacts in SEM 209-210and thermal stability 78, 120

Becke line method 34, 252BEL See Backscattered electron

imagingBend contours 43Bending, in situ 59Benzocyclobutene (BCB)

as coating 15photodefinable 291

Berek (rotary) compensator 84Bertrand lens 35BF. See Bright fieldBiaxial materials 14,81-82,

118,277LVSEM of blown film 287

Binocular stereomicroscopes31, 132,481,483

Biocompatibility 346Biodegradable polymers

347-349Biopol 347Biostability 346Birefringence 11,35, 81-84,438

biaxial 82definition of 35in fibers 251-253in films 283,288measurement 83-85 , 253negative, positive 82refractive index and 35, 81uniaxial 82

Birefringence imaging 438-439Bisphenol A (BPA) 329

epoxy resins 180Polybutylene terephthalate

blends 168Polycarbonate/polyethylene

blends 178Blends 3,11 ,16,141,331-338,

496AFM 111-113freeze fracture 231by layering 16

Index

phase domains 329, 369, 412,482

specimen preparation of153-1 96

toughening 309, 323-326,329,339

staining of 310, 329-331,339-350

with LCPs 329, 409Block copolymers 2-3, 141,

337-345amorphous, crystalline 337examples of 159,170,177,

190,223,337-339Blow moldin g 9, 14,311- 312Boil-in bags 373Bond breaking 414,442

mass loss 121in radiation damage 118-123

BOPP. See Biaxially orientedpolypropylene

Bottie films 283Bott les 373Bowing in SPM scanners 115BPA. See Bisphenol ABrace-Kohler compensator 84Bragg's law 69, 77Bright field (BF) imaging 30,

32-33,481in TEM 42-43, 53, 341in O M 32,150in STEM 154, 286

Bright field defocus phasecont rast 280

Brittle fracture 5,214-215,231,255,327, 349, 361

Brittle matrix polymers 325Bromine 179Bromobenzene 135BSE. See Backscattered electronsBulletproof vests 270, 272

CCA. See Cellulose acetateCables 270, 352-353Calcium carbonate filler 217,

370Calibra tion 57-59

in AFM 58-5 9by thermal tuning 59

Canadian Balsam 145Cantilever(s) in AFM 46-51 ,

58, 97-101deflection 102

force modulation imaging104

harmonic imaging 443oscillation in ICAFM 49,

106-110Qu ality factor (Q) 98

Capillary forcesin contact mode AFM 48,

103in IC-AFM 108, 112

Car bonamorphous, electron

diffraction 70coatings 19, 202-204, 207support films 134-135,138,

198,203Carbon black filled polymers 8,

32,150,284,354AFM of 336-337OM of 368TEM of 369

Carbon black filled rubber368-369

Carbon fiber composites 8,356-357, 365-366

OM of 144, 365SEM of 366-3 77specimen preparati on method

for 142-144Carbon fibers, etching of

189-190Carbon nanotubes 5Q.-51,219,

375-376,380Carbon replicas 198- 200, 314,

386Carboxyl terminated but adiene-

acrylonitrile (CTBN)327

modified epoxy 389CA RS. See Coherent anti -Stokes

Raman scatteringCast films 137-139CB. See Chlorobutyl rubberCCD. See Charge-coupled deviceCelgard 165, 206, 303-305

stained with OS04 304Cellulose acetate (CA) 200,301

etching of 181, 185, 271hollow fiber membranes 301in replica formation 200,314RO membrane 300

Cellulose nitrate 300Cellulose fibers

as filler 273, 354

517

stauung 161,178-17 9Ceramic, as filler 354Cerium hexaboride 40CFE. See Cold field emissionCFM. See Chemical force

microscopyChain folded structure 5--6Cha nnel plate electron multiplier

detector 95Chaotic advection 16, 293-294,

326,376Characteristic x-rays 53, 88, 91Characterization techniques

summary 17-2]microscopy techniques 18,

480-488non-microscopy techniques

492-500spatial resolution 18, 29, 72-

74,114,123Characterizers in AFM 117Charge-coupled device (CCD)

28, 30, 124for TEM 59

Charging effects 90, 94, 201,207

SEM artifa cts and 207-209Charpy tester. See ImpactChemical force microscopy

(CFM) 441-442polymer applications 442

Chemical microscopy 459Chemical/solvent etching

18]-]83Chemical vapor deposition

(CYD) 15Chlo rinated polyolefin (CPO)

394Chlorobutyl rubber (CB) 177Chlorosulfonic acid staining

162,173-175, 179-180applications 162,173-174,

185,281,284literature review 173

Chro matic aberration 73-7 5with EFTEM 75in HREM 77

Chromic acid 183-1 84, 196Chromium oxide 143Circuit boards 291, 373Circular polarization 80Clay filler 217, 358

in nanocomposites 374-379Cleavage plane splitting 146

518

Clouding temperature 135CLSM. See Confocal laser

scanning microscopyCoatings. See Conductive

coatings for EMspecimens; Polymercoatings

COe. See Cycloolefincopolymers

CoContinuity 309Coherent anti-Stokes Raman

scattering (CARS) 461Coherent light, definition 68Cohesive failure 367Cold drawing process 10Cold FEG 40, 87-88, 304. Also

Cold field emission (CFE)source

Cold stage, examples of use176,228,232-233,385

Collodion support films 134,197,20D-201

Colloids 380, 394-398Compact disks (CDs) 317Compensators, polarized light

35, 84-85, 252-253Babinet, Berek, Elliptic,

Senarmont 84first order red plate 84quartz wedge 84

Competitive analysis 349-353Complementary techniques 1

in microscopy 138-141,184,266,268,301,394,481

non-microscopy 17-18,250,492-500

Composite membranes 295Composites 8, 354-380. See also

Nanocompositesadhesion in 354, 360applications 354-355carbon black filled rubber

368-369carbon fiber 356-357,365-366characterization of 357-363conductive fillers 356, 373cryofracture 227fillers in 354fracture 217,354graphite fiber 356-357,

365-366hybrids 357OM of 355, 357-359particle filled 366-370

processing of 354-355SEM of 355, 359-362TEM of 357,362-364

Compositional contrast 36-38,217,219,350,452,456.Also Atomic numbercontrast

Compositional mapping 464Compounding 11-12Compound microscopes 31,

483Compression stages 59Compression molding 14,152,

311Compressive strength for LCPs

178kink bands and 416

Condenser lenses 30, 68, 78for DIC 79for phase contrast 79

Conductive AFM 48Conductive coatings for EM

specimens 201-211artifacts 204-211carbon 202-204,207coating devices 202-203high resolution 202-203,

205-206and LVSEM, VPSEM 202metals for 203, 317produced with IBS 204-206,

317shadowing with 203for SEM (and STM)

203-207sputtered 202, 204-206, 284forTEM 203vacuum evaporators and 202

Confocal laser scanningmicroscopy (CLSM) 21,143,232,358,436-441

for nanocomposites 374optical sectioning and 454

Conoscopic view 35Constant height mode AFM

444Constant signal mode SPM 45Contact microradiography 356Contact mode AFM 47-48,

102-105. See alsoNoncontact AFM,IC-AFM

capillary forces 103electrostatic forces 103

Index

force modulation imaging 48,104-105

force volume imaging 104,442

tips 115-118,490Continuous chaotic advection

blender (CCAB) 16,17,294

Continuum x-rays 54Contrast 18-19,28-29, 72 See

also Differentialinterference contrast;Phase contrast

atomic number (orcompositional) 36-38,217,219,350,452,456

crystallographic 43diffraction 43, 112Hoffman modulation 33-34in SEM 38-39,254in TEM 43topographic 36, 38, 254

Contrast transfer function (CTF)72

Controlled environmentvitrification system(CEVS) 233

Conventional transmissionelectron microscopy(CTEM). SeeTransmission electronmicroscopy

Copolyesters. See Aromaticcopolyesters

Copolymers2-3, 8, 292, 309. See alsoBlends; Block copolymers;Graft copolymers

HAADFof 345LVSEM of 310random 8, 308, 340TEM of 337

Corona discharge 387Correlative microscopy

488-489Cosmetics, emulsions for 380Coverage, of fabrics 258CPD. See Critical point dryingCPO. See Chlorinated polyolefinCrazes and crazing 4, 212,

217-222definition 4fractography 212in HIPS 218,222

Index

microtomy and 220rea l time study 219sample deformation methods

212, 221SAXS and 221preparat ion for TEM

219-221Cree p in AFM scanners 115Critical fiber length 355, 360Cr itical point 230Crit ical point drying (CPD)

method 20, 230--231Cri tical press ure 230Crossed-beam FIB microscopes

453Crossed polarizers (polars) 34-

35,83- 85, 253Cross-linkable epoxy

thermoplastics (CET)327

Cross linking reaction 3, 119of polybut adiene 381in rad iation damage

119-1 20Crossover energ ies in L VSEM

90,94,208Cryo deformation 219Cryo-FESEM 232. See also

CryomicroscopyCryogenic specimen prep aration

226-232Cryomicroscopy 53, 232-234Cryomicrotomy 146, 154-157,

169cryoultramicrotomy 146,

154-157 , 292,352knives 154of latex 382of nanocomposites 376-378for SPM 158, 450, 487

Cryo-po lishing 328Cryo -SEM 232- 233Cryo-TEM 233- 234, 394-398

ar tifacts and 491of nanoparticles 395-3 98with SAXS 499

Cryoultra microtomy 146,151,154-157, 292, 352

Crysta lline melt ing temperature4-5, 53, 113, 495

Crysta lline polymers SeeSemicrystalline polymers

Crystallinity 4, 283, 500and deformation in films 283

loss of, due to radiat ion121-1 22

and Raman microscopy 460tra nscrystaIIinity 321

Crysta llographic contrast 43Crysta ls 4-5 . See also Single

CrystalsAFM of 141Diffraction from 69- 71Extended chain 7, 272HREM of 45, 137Liquid Crystals 399Optical properti es 81-82in PE 5, 135-138, 174, 280in TL CPs 186

Crysta llization 5-7 ,496in-situ AFM 47, 159,224in-situ PLM 133, 278in LVSEM 271

CTBN. See Carboxyl terminatedbut adiene-acrylonitrile

CTE M. See Transmissionelectron microscopy

CTF. See Contrast transferfunct ion

Cyano-acrylate glue 141, 145Cycloo lefin copol ymers (COC)

170

DDark field (DF) 30, 32-33 . See

also High angle annulardark field

optical microscopy 32TE M 43,53, 414

Deflect ionof AFM cantilever 46-48,99,

101- 106SEM display mode 254

Defocusimaging 43,139,280

and phase contrast 43, 76-77,280

optimum TEM 75-76Deform ation 4-5,47,212-213.

See also In situdeformation , shear band s

in AFM 47,102, 223-224in copolymers 340crazing and 221cryodefo rmation 219crystallinity and 283and fract ure 221-226in PE 285

519

orientation and 35, 139, 250of spherulites 283stages for 59-60

Degradationaminolysis 182biodegradation 348hydrol ysis 13, 15, 123radiation induced 118-122,

310Delaminat ion 356, 394, 396Delustrant 165, 262Depth of field 30, 42, 74-75, 87,

440, 485Depth of focus 30, 74-75DETA. See Dieth ylene

triamineDetachment replicas 201Detector resolution 72-74Detectors

AFM photo diode 99BSE 38CCD 28, 30, 59, 124, 458channel plate 95E-T 39, 92IR 459for LVSEM 95-96Robinson 38for VPSEM 96-97x-ray 54-55

DF. See Dark fieldDiamond knives for

(cryo )ultramicro tomy152-156, 223, 331, 382

oscillating 153, 160Diamo nd-lik e car bon (DLC)

50--51DIe. See Differential

interference cont rastDichloroacetic acid 182Dichroic 34, 438Dichroism 461,497Diethylene triamine (D ETA)

168Differential inte rference contrast

(DIC) 33-3 4condenser lenses 79of etched surfaces 182, 185for opti cal sectioning 454of polished sections 144video enhanced 384

Differential scanning calorime try(DSC) 60, 492, 495-496

Differential thermal analysis(DTA) 495

520

Diffraction 44, 68, 482 See alsoElectron diffraction; Smallangle x-ray scattering; x-ray diffraction

in amorphous polymers 69contrast, in TEM 43electron diffraction 44, 69-71limit to resolution 72microdiffraction 44,412-414SAED 44, 122,275,412,481SAXS 5, 186,297,481,

499-500techniques listed 482X-ray diffraction 374,482,

493-495Digital

imaging 31,233,489image analysis 56, 234, 275

Dimensional changes, radiation-induced 42, 122-123

Disintegration, as specimenpreparation 137

Dispersed phases 321-348morphology 329, 369size of 311, 480

Dispersion, as specimenpreparation 135

Distortionof AFM image 58,114-115,

491of SEM image 87, 94-95of specimens 122,147,151

DLC. See Diamond-like carbonDMA. See Dynamic mechanical

analysisDrying methods 151,226-234.

See also Critical pointdrying; Freeze drying

DSC. See Differential scanningcalorimetry

DTA. See Differential thermalanalysis

Dual-beam FIB microscopes453

Dual-pass technique, NCAFM112-113

Ductile fracture 215, 230, 255,328

Ductile matrix polymers 145,216,325

DVDs 317-319Dwell time 15Dyes 161Dynamic charging 208

Dynamic mechanical analysis(DMA) 495-496

Dynamic microscopy 59-60cold stage in 60, 233-234hot stage in 60tensile stage in 59-60; 87

EEastman 910 glue 148,197EBA. See Ethylene butylacrylateEbonite method for specimen

preparation 177-178and tire cords 269-270

EDS. See Energy dispersive x-ray spectroscopy

EELS. See Electron energy lossspectroscopy

EFI. See Energy filtered imageEFM. See Electric force

microscopyEFTEM. See Energy filtering

electron microscopyE-GMA. See Ethylene-glycidyl

methacrylateElastic properties

AFM and 104-105, 224of silicon 98viscoelasticity 49, 104,223

Elastic scattering 37, 42, 88, 285Elastomers 3,309

with multiphase polymers323,326

spherulites and 155, 329Electric force microscopy (EFM)

50,113Electrons. See Backscattered

electrons; Secondaryelectrons

Electron beam (E Beam)sputtering technique 51,202

Electron diffraction 18, 44-45,69-71,121-122

advantages of 486of films 280,410example patterns 69-71,122,

280,412interpretation 69-70microdiffraction 44,412-414selected area 44, 275, 481

Electron energy lossspectroscopy (EELS) 53,461-462

and EFTEM 157,462

Index

parallel 461-462with STEM 138, 461-462

Electron microscopy (EM) 35-45,69-78,85-97,438-440.See also Analytical EM;High resolution EM;Scanning EM

Electron probe microanalyzer(EPMA) 54-55, 484, 496

compared to XRF 496Electron sources 39-41Electron spectroscopy for chemical

analysis (ESCA). See X-rayphoton spectroscopy

Electron yield 90, 208Electrostatic forces in AFM

103, 108, 114Elemental mapping by x-ray

analysis 55-56,464examples with SEM imaging

350-351,394,396Elliptical polarized light 80Elliptic compensator 84EM. See Electron microscopyEMAA. See Polyethylene-ran-

methacrylic acidEmbedding

in acrylic 151in epoxy 151,154in GMA 154media for OM 149media for TEM and AFM

151-153in polyesters 151

Emulsion(s)2, 380-398. See alsoLatexes

and latexes 381-385microemulsions 380-382polymerization 381-382

End point dose 120Energy dispersive x-ray

spectroscopy (EDS) 54-55,484

AEM 55elemental mapping 55-56,

351,361-362,396of metal loaded fibers 265with SEM, TEM 53WDS comparison 55, 484

Energy filtered image (EFI) 462Energy filtering electron

microscopy (EFTEM)70,461-462

Index

with EELS 157,462and interface adhesion 157of PMMA/SAN blend 462for thick samples 75of unstained samples 161

Energy spreadof electron sources 40and resolution 86

Engineering plastics and resins2,308-353

characterization of 309-311extrudates 311-312failure analysis of 349-350molded parts 311-315multiphase polymers 321-348

Environmental SEM (ESEM,HPSEM or VPSEM) 21,41, 96-97, 452

applications 348-349of blends 232, 329conductive coatings and 202detectors for 96-97of hydrated materials 123,

348of latex 382-383

EO. See Ethylene octanecopolymer

EPDM. See Ethylene-propylene-diene monomer

EPMA. See Electron probemicroanalyzer

Epoxy 3, 15, 309as adhesive 386as brittle matrix polymer 325Cross-linkable epoxy

thermoplastics (CET)166,327

crazing in 220as embedding medium 143,

151, 154Epotek 197fracture 366Liquid crystalline epoxy

(LCE) 186rubber toughened 174,326-

328,389Equatorial reflection 69,415ESCA. See X-ray photon

spectroscopyESEM. See Environmental SEMEtching 20, 52, 181-196

with acids 183-184artifacts and 490with FIB 194-195

freeze fracture 20,231-232ion/plasma 188-194with permanganate acid

184-188plasma 188-194summary table 195-196solvents for 181-183with xylene 168

E-T detector. See Everhart-Thornley detector

Ethene-co-1-butene (PEB) 311,330

Ethylene butylacrylate (EBA) 352Ethylene octane (EO) copolymer

335,393Ethylene-propylene-diene

monomer (EPDM) 154,309

in blends 168, 336Ethylene-propylene rubber

(EPR) 331-334,377Ethylene vinyl acetate (EVA)

335,393Ethylene-vinyl alcohol (EVOH)

374EVA. See Ethylene vinyl acetateEvaporative coatings 202-204

and vacuum evaporators 198,202

Everhart-Thornley (E-T)detector 39, 92

LVSEM and 95Exfoliation 373Extinction, in PLM

incomplete 402positions 35, 83-84

Extraction replicas 201Extrudates 11-17

of films 283,288of LCPs 403--409of PBZT 411--412

Extrusion processes 12,311-312

FFabric

coverage 258hand 258nonwoven 222, 258-259OM of 251protective 270SEM of 258-259woven 258

Failure analysis 349-353

521

False coloring 57, Color plateXIII

Fast Fourier transforms (FFTs)234,275,297

Fast scanning SPM 444--445Fatigue fracture

in composite polymers 354of fibers 255, 257

Feedback controlin AFM 47,110,113in SPM 45

FEG. See Field emission gunFESEM. See Field emission

scanning electronmicroscopy

FFM. See Frictional forcemicroscopy

FFTs. See Fast Fouriertransforms

FIB. See Focused ion beamFiber composites 355-357,

365-366contact microradiography of

356critical fiber length 355, 360interfacial bond failure

217-218OM of 357-359SEM of 359-362single polymer, PE in PE 271specimen preparation 143-

145,217Fiber finishes 197-198,254,360Fibers 2, 250-276. See also

High modulus fibers;Hollow fiber membranes;Microfibers; Textile fibers

aramid 193,409--410,417formation of 9-11fractography 213-214,

254-258fracture summary 255high performance 270-276industrial 267-270metal loaded 265-267nanofibers 273-275optical retardation of 253peelback of 146-147replication and 200spider silk 275-276TEM of 259-260textile 251-265with titanium dioxide 262wood pulp 258, 270, 272-273

522

Fibrils . See also Microfibrilsin crazes 4, 220-222in LCPs 417-418in membranes 304-306and SAXS 499

Field curvature 73Field emission gun (FEG) 40-

41,44,80,304,331in HRSEM 41properties summary 40

Field emission scanning electronmicroscopy (FESEM)40-41 ,87,196,288

artifacts at low voltage210-211

of membranes 297, 304, 307of microfibrils 414of PVC 258

Field of view 32-33Filled LCP moldings 407-408Fillers 8, 11, 32, 53, 118, 217,

354. See also Particle filledcomposites

mica 354,366,369-371minerals as 366

Films 2,276-308. See alsoLangmuir-Blodgett films

amorphous "structure"281-282

OM of anisotropic 283birefringence of 277,283,288blown 11, 277, 283-288bottle 283casting for TEM 137-139dichroic 34drawing for TEM 139-140extrusion of 283, 288formation of 9-11Formvar 134HAADFof 285industrial 282-294model studies of 278--281multilayered 292-294orientation classes of 277peelback of 146-147polyester 283polyimide 282refractive index of 283SEM of 284semicrystalline 280-281spherulites in 138SPM of 286-287surfaces of 140wettability of 287

Filter membranes 295First-order red plate 35, 83-85 ,

Color plate IIFlat film membranes 294-305Fluor lens 32Fluorescence microscopy 28,

454-456Fluorescence yield 91FMM. See Force modulation

microscopyFocal plane array 459Focus 30, 85. See also Defocus

Gaussian or geometric 75-76 ,86

Scherzer 75-76underfocus 76, 80

Focused ion beam (FIB) 440,453-454

etching with 194-195Force modulation imaging or

Force modulationmicroscopy (FMM) 48,104,279,330

Force-separation curves in AFM101-102

Force spectroscopy 47-48 ,441,444

Force volume imaging 105,442

Form birefringence 35Formvar films 134Fountain (flow field) model 356Fourier's theorem 69Fourier transform infrared

(FfIR) microscopy 459-460,492,497

resolution 459Fourier transform infrared

(FTIR) spectroscopy 18,273,303,383,496-497

dichroism with 497Fractography 212-213

of fibers 213-214,254-258Fracture 212-217. See also

Fatigue fracturebrittle 255, 349of carbon fibers 366of composite polymers 217,

354-357,366crazing and 217-221of fibers, summary 255hackles 214,350,360of plastics 214-216SEM of 212,214,257

Index

of semicrystalline polymers215

standard physical testing213-217

types of 213-214at weld line 316

Free amplitude 49, 111,450Freeze drying sample

preparation 20, 227examples of use 227-230TEM and 227

Freeze fracture-etching 20,231

examples 231-232Freezing methods 226,

227-233Freon 230-232Frequency modulated detection

in NC-AFM 112-113Frequency sweep data 107-108Frictional force microscopy

(FFM) 47,50, 103-104,481

FTIR. See Fourier transforminfrared

Fuel cells 297

GG values 118-120

definition of 118table of values 119

Gas path length in VPSEM96-97

Gastric balloons 346Gaussian focal plane 75-76 , 86Gelatin 197-201, 300Geometric focal plane. See

Gaussian focal planeGlass fiber composites 354

SEM of 218, 355, 359-364OM of 357,360,408

Glass fibersmicroscopy of 358, 392plasma etching of 190-192coating on 392

Glass knives 146,152,154,292crazing and 220cryomicrotomyand 169,187

Glass transition temperature 4,113,447,495

Glycerol 138,143,279Glycol methacrylate (GMA)

154GMA. See Glycol methacrylate

Index

Goldbackscattering coefficient 37-coated AFM tips 441colloid 117conductive coating for EM

203-205, 211decoration 19, 174, 211, 278for shadowing 203

Graft copolymers 3, 8, 337-345HIPS as 337

Grafted rubber concentrate(GRe) 327

Graphite. See also Highlyoriented pyrolyticgraphite

fiber composites 356-357,365-366

substrates 137,140-141Gray (Gy), definition 120GRe. See Grafted rubber

concentrate

HHAAOF See High angle annul ar

dark fieldHackle (fracture) morph ology

213,217,256in composite matrix 217,

360-361,367in engineering resins and

plastics 349- 350in fibers 256

Hand , of fabrics 258Hard elastic polypropylene

(HEPP) 223Hardy microtome 147Harmonic imaging in IC-AFM

443-444of PMMA/PS 444Low Quality factor (Q) and

443resonant cantilevers for 444

HOPE. See High densitypolyethylene

Heat aging 157,254Heat conduction 120, 356Heated tip thermal microscopy

47,447HEPP. See Hard elastic

polypropyleneHeteropolymers, definition 3Hexacyanoferrate (HCF) 142Hexalluoroisopropanol (HFIP)

137, 198

Heptane etching 346HFIP. See

HexafluoroisopropanolHigh angle annular dark field

(HAADF) 44, 233, 456of nanoparticles 345of ionomer films 285

High density polyethylene(HOPE) , see alsoPolyethylene (PE) 151,186, 279

deformati on in 285end uses listed 508etching of 181, 184-186, 190fibers 271films 235, 271, 284microporous membranes

300replication methods 195single crystals 135spherulites 84staining of 167-168thin film specimens 83, 139

High impact polystyrene (HIPS)3, 8, 94, 151, 155, 171

3D imaging of 453AFM and TEM compared

155-156crazing in 218. 222end uses listed 508etching of 196graft copolymer 337multiphase polymer 309staining methods for 168,

171-172Highly oriented pyrolytic

graphite (HOPG) 133,140,286,491

High modulus fibers 7,137,270-272,409-412

aromatic copolyesters 412aromatic polyamides

409-411LCPs 399PE 270-272rigid rod polymers 411-412

High modulus low shrink yarns(HMLS) 272

High molecular weight polymers135,288. See alsoUltrahigh molecularweight PE

High performance polymers398-418. See also Liquid

523

crystalline polymers(LCPs)

extrus ion of 403-409high modulus fibers 409-412high performance fibers

270-276LCPs 399-400moldings 403-409

High pressure SEM (HPSEM orVPSEM or ESEM ) 21,41, 59-60, 96-97,452

application s 348-349of blends 232, 329conducti ve coatings and 202detectors for 96-97of hydrated materials 123,

348of latex 382-383

High resolution coating devices202-204

High resolution scann ingelectron microscopy(HRSEM) 21, 41,86.See also Field EmissionSEM,

aberrations in 86compared to AFM 289,305-

307,341FEG in 41

High resolution (transmission)electron microscopy(HREM, also HRTEM)21, 45,77

of dispersed crystals 137lens aberrations and 77low dose (LD) 78, 275,

414-415nanofiber example 273- 275specimen preparation for

137-138of PE 285of PVC 281

High speed spin-draw fiberprocess 10, 262-264

High temperature ashing 357HIPS . See High impact

polystyreneHMLS. See High modulus low

shrink yarnsHigh voltage electron

microscope 53, 136, 292Hoffman modulati on contrast

33compared to DIC 34

524

Hollow fiber membranes305-308

of modified PEEK 307of PE 308of polyimide 307of polysulfone 305ofPTFE 307

Homeotropic orientation 400Homopolymers 2,52,313

examples 309HOPG. See Highly oriented

pyrolytic graphiteHot compaction process 15,

270,271Hot stage microscopy 60, 221,

329in AFM 224-225, 344, 393in polarized light microscopy

132,284,399in SEM 197,222

HPSEM. See High pressureSEM

HREM. See High resolutionelectron microscopy

HRSEM. See High resolutionscanning electronmicroscopy

HRTEM. See High resolutiontransmission electronmicroscopy

Humidityand forces in AFM 103-104,

490in CFM 442

Hybrid composite polymers357

Hyperspectral imaging 451Hysteresis in AFM

in cantilever deflection 101in IC-AFM 109in scanner motion 115

IIBS. See Ion beam sputter

coatingIC-AFM. See Intermittent

contact mode AFMIllumination 29-30, 33-34, 73

in CSLM 436in optical sectioning

454-455Illumination systems 78-80

for OM 78-79forTEM 80

Image analysis 19,56-59,309examples 145, 161,227,284,

331,375in automated SPM 450-452

Image formation 28-31in AFM 97-118with lenses(OM, TEM) 29-

30,68-85radiation and 121-123in SEM 92-94

Image processing 19,53,56-57,93,455,490

examples 271, 329Imaging. See also Analytical

imaging; Backscatteredelectron imaging;Birefringence imaging,Force modulation imaging;Harmonic imaging; Imageformation; Threedimensional imaging

in AFM 97-118BEl 37-39force-volume imaging 105,451with lenses (OM, TEM)

68-85lenticular, in 3D display 452phase, in AFM 49, 442SEI 39in SEM 35-39, 85-97in SPM 45-51structured light imaging 455in TEM 42-44tomographic spectral imaging

451Impact (Charpy or Izod) test

190,212,216,323on composite 360-361

Impact modified thermoplastics328-337

Impact strength 2-3, 11, 16,316,479

Incident beam voltage 483in SEM 37,41,52,88-90,92,

94in TEM 53

Incident dose 120Incident light techniques 28Incoherent radiation, definition

68Indentation and AFM 47,223,

393. See alsoNanoindentation

Index ellipsoid 81-82

Index

Indicatrix 81-82Indium-tin-oxide (ITO) coating

140, 141Industrial fibers 267-270Industrial films 282-294Inelastic scattering 70, 88, 161Infrared (IR) spectroscopy 18,

496-497. See also Fouriertransform infraredspectroscopy

dichroism 497Infrared microspectroscopy

(IMS). See Fouriertransform infraredmicroscopy

Injection molding 12-14,311-316

reaction 1M (RIM) 15of semicrystalline polymers

316In-lens SEM design 86In situ deformation 221-223,

311in AFM 223-225in SEM 222-223in TEM 223

Instron tensile tester 212-213,255

Interaction volumein AFM 104in SEM 37-38,88-89,92,94,

123in STEM 91in X-ray microanalysis 54-56,

91Interference 68

colors 35, 221contrast 33, 34. See also

Differential interferencecontrast

microscopy 33-34in X-ray microscopy 458

Interferometric optical profiler436

Intermediate aperture 44, 71Intermediate lens 30Intermittent contact mode AFM

(IC-AFM) or Tappingmode AFM 47-49, 105-106, 140

applied toblends 334-337block copolymer films 290,

343

Index

cellulose fibers 273etched spherulites 315- 316lithograph y process 291microporou s membranes

305-306toughened thermoset 328

cantilevers for 98cant ilever oscillation 106-110harmonic imaging 443imaging parameters 110--11 1interaction distance regime

101modeling of 112probe tips 51,490Quality factor (Q) 99, 109

Interpretation of images488--492

Inversion walls (LCPs) 406Iodine staining 52,179,348Ion beam sputter coating (IBS)

206, 317Ion etching 188- 194Ion microscopy 440-44 1Ionomers 8,285, 328Ion Tech microsputter gun 191iPP. See Isotactic polypropyleneIR. See InfraredIsogyres 399, 401Isoprene inclusion (and staining)

method 165examp les 178, 264-265

Isopropanol 141, 182Isotactic polymers, definition of

3Isotactic polypropylene (iPP) 3,

184-189,224, 330chemical force microscopy of

442ITO . See Indium-tin-oxideIzod. See Impact

JJarnin-Lebedeff interference

microscope 33

KKapton 277Kevlar 187, 272, 415--417Kink bands 174,255, 412

compression and 272,416HR EM of 415in LCPs 413--416STM of 416

KMn0 4' See Permanganat e acid

Knee replacement, UHMWPEfor 224

Knives. See Diamond knives;Glass knives

Kohler illumination system78-79

Kraton 187,271,339

LLaB6• See Lanthanum

hexaborideLamellae or Lamellar crystals

4-6 ,52,480in block copolymers 399-343in PE 136, 280, 284-285and SAXS 499-500thickening of 279

Langmuir-Blodgett films (LB)AFM 140,286,450NSOM 449

Lanth anum hexaboride (LaB6)source 40, 41

SEM 41,85,87,331TEM 44,302

Laser confocal scanningmicroscopy (LCSM). SeeConfocal laser scanningmicroscop y

Laser-induced fluorescencespectroscopy ofnanocomposites 374

Lateral force microscopy (LFM)47, 103- 104,441

Lateral forces 104Latex(es) 381-386. See also

Resorcinol-formaldehyde-latex

for calibration 57, 117characterization

AFM 111,389-393OM, SEM 383-384TEM 172,176,384-385VPSEM 383

dispersio n for TEM 135cryomicrotomyand 157,

382film coalescence 386film formation 9, 393freeze drying of 227particle size measurement

385-386rep lication meth ods for 386staining methods for 167,

170--173, 176

525

Lattice imaging 43, 45, 72, 76-78,494

in high modulu s fibers 275,409--410

Layer multipl ying coextrusion16, 292

LB. See Langmuir-Blodgett filmsLCE. See Liquid crystalline

epoxyLCPs. See Liquid crystalline

polymersLCSM. See Confocal laser

scanning microscopyLDPE. See Low density

polyethyleneLead zirconate titan ate (PZT)

99Lennard-Jones potential

100-101Lens(es). 28 See also Condenser

lenses; Objective lensesaberrations in 40, 73acceptance angle 72-74aplanatic 78Bert rand 35chrom atic aberra tion 40, 75,

86condenser lenses 29-30, 44,

78--80in SEM 36,86-87

contrast with 72- 76diffraction in 68-69glass for OM 29,32illumination systems 78--80imaging with 29-30, 68-85intermediate 30objective lenses 32, 75projector lenses 30, 74phase contrast with 76-78resolution 72-76

Lens-imaging microscope s29-30

Lenticular imaging, in 3D display452

LFM. See Lateral forcemicroscopy

LFRTs. See Long fiberreinforced thermoplastics

Light emitting diodes 446, 449Light microscopy. See Optical

microscopyLight scattering techniques 499Linear low density polyeth ylene

(LLDPE) 186

526

Linear polarization of light 80Liquid crystalline epoxy (LCE)

186Liquid crystalline polymers

(LCPs) 7-8, 141, 185,399--400,494

AFM of 406aromatic copolyester 400aromatic polyamide 400banded structure 402blends 408--409chemistry of 399--400domain texture 401--402,405,

408--409films from 282high modulus fibers 399,

409--417formation of 9microfibrils in 415--417structural model 417--418

lyotropic liquid crystals398-399

microstructure 400--403,413--417

nematic crystals 9, 399--401,406,408

optical textures 400--402PLM 400rigid rod polymers 399smectic crystals 45, 399TLCPs 185-186,270

Liquid crystals (LC) 399Liquid nitrogen 53,149,226,

233,382Liquid sulfur 220Lithography

of AFM tips 50AFM for 287, 444

LLDPE. See Linear low densitypolyethylene

Local thermal analysis (LTA)352-353

Long fiber reinforcedthermoplastics (LFRTs)11

Low density polyethylene(LDPE)

AFM 315blends 16, 293-295, 348chemical force microscopy

442Low dose , high resolution

electron microscopy (LD-HREM) 45,78,137,273

Low dose TEM 52-53Low temperature RF plasma

asher (LTA) 191,357Low voltage SEM (LVSEM)

52,94-96,133applied to

blown PE film 287copolymers 310crystallization 271

detectors for 95-96specimen charging and 94-

95,202,207-208image comparison 93techniques compared 483

LTA. See Local thermal analysis;Low temperature RFplasma asher

LVSEM. See Low voltageSEM

Lyotropic 8

MMacroemulsions 380Magnetic force microscopy

(MFM) 50, 112-113Magnetic resonance imaging

(MRI) 456Magnetron sputtering 206,

232Maleated polypropylene

(MAH-g-PP) 375Mapping

elemental, by x-ray analysis55,266,351,372,396,464

IR 460Mass loss, by radiation damage

121Mass spectroscopy (MS) 18Mass thickness contrast 42--43,

221Material safety data sheet

(MSDS) 161,162,170Matrix cleavage of composites

217,357Matrix cracking 217Matrix polymers 33, 325MCf. See Mercury cadmium

tellurideMechanical deformation. See

DeformationMEK. See Methyl ethyl ketoneMelting point 4-5, 9-11 , 45, 53,

78,120,495

Index

Membranes 2,276-308. Seealso Hollow fibermembranes; Reverseosmosis membranes;Microporous membranes

applications of 276, 289, 297-298,301-302,304,307

cast 276-277composite 295, 299-300flat film 294-305freeze fractured 300hollow fiber 23G-231,

305-308microporous 295-296 ,

303-305reverse osmosis 296, 302, 305types of 277

Mercury cadmium telluride(MCT) 459

Mercuric trifluoroacetate,staining with 178-179

Meridional reflections 69Metal decoration 19. See also

Gold decorationMetal loaded fibers 265-267Metalshadowing 19,199,203Methyl ethyl ketone (MEK) as

etchant 182Metripol 438Mettler hot stage 279MF. See MicrofiltersMFM. See Magnetic force

microscopyMica

test object in AFM 109flakes 217,279,290as filler 354, 366, 369-370as substrate 133, 136-138,

278Micelles 382, 395

definition of 380Michel-Levy (polarization color)

chart 84Microanalysis. See X-ray

microanalysisMicrodiffraction 44, 412--414,

482Microernulsion , definition of

38G-381Microfibrils, or microfibers 6,

10,250,418in fiber structure 250,

271-271examples of 262,265,414

Index

in LCPs 412,414-418in composites 157, 228-230STM, SEM compared 416TEM , Electron diffraction

414Microfilters (MF) 295Micro mar resistance (MMR)

224Microporous membranes 295-

296,303-306examples 205-206,211 ,289,

303-306Microscopes 28-31. See also

Binocularstereomicroscopes;Microscopy

compared 483compound 31crossed-beam or dual-beam

FIB 453image formation in 68-124lens-imaging 29-30radiation damage in

118-124scanning-imaging 3~31simple 31

Microscopy 18-19,21,28-31analytical 53-56,459-468calibration in 57-59cryomicroscopy 53, 60,

233-234dynamic 59-60quantitative 56-59,386techniques compared

480-488Microtomes 147-150

rotary 148sledge 148

Microtomy 19, 146-160. Seealso Cryomicrotomy;Ultramicrotomy

for 3D imaging 57,452-454artifacts in 160block trimming for 152embedding for 149,151mounting for 152microtomes 147-150for OM 147-150for SEM 150specimen mounting for

148-149for SPM 15~154, 158-159,

315for TEM 15~154

Microwave oven technique 151,17~171

Minerals, as fillers 366MiniSIMS 466Mirror, as fracture surface region

29,33,213,256Mist, as fracture surface region

256MMR. See Micro mar

resistanceModulation transfer function

(MTF) 72Modulus 2,9-11 ,223-224. See

also High modulus fibersMolding processes 11-17,311,

403-409. See also Injectionmolding; Moldings,microstructure of

blow molding 14compression molding 14,311mold temperature 11,356reaction injection molding

(RIM) 15structure-property relations for

4-5 ,8,17thermoforming 14-15

Moldings, microstructure ofspherulitic textures 5-7in fiber composites 355-356,

365-366in filled LCP resins 407-409cryofracture 227in LCPs 403-409skin-core morphology 12-13,

315-316Molecular orientation 5, 13

by birefringence 35, 251in fibers 25~253by NSOM 449in radiation damage 121

Molecular weight distribution18

Monomer, definition 2Morphology, definition of 1,

3-4introduction to 1-21

Mounting, of specimens 148-149,152,213

MPDI. See M-phenyleneisophthalamide

M-phenylene isophthalamide(MPDI) 45, 137,273

MRI. See Magnetic resonanceimaging

527

MS. See Mass spectroscopyMSDS. See Material safety data

sheetMTF. See Modulation transfer

functionMuffle furnace 357Multilayered films 292-294

nano thermal analysis of447

PC/PET 159,292Multiphase polymers 3,8,47,

309,321-349AFM of 159, 330, 332, 338biodegradable 347-349block copolymers and

337-345carbon black filled 368copolymers 337-344elastomers with 323, 345examples listed 309EPDM 336-337etching techniques for 185,

193-196FTIR and IC-AFM of

389graft copolymers and

337-345HIPS 155, 171impact modified thermoplastics

217,328-337OM, PLM of 330, 332, 338,

484particle size in 8polyurethanes in 345-347processing of 326random copolymers and

337-345resins of 321-349SAN 462-463SBS 339,343SEM of 216,331 ,318,346,

350staining techniques for 167,

175,181,329,341TEM of 159, 332-333, 339-

341,486toughened resins 323-326toughened thermoset resins

326-327Multiwalled carbon nanotubes

(MWCNTs) 219,372,376

MWCNTs. See Multiwalledcarbon nanotubes

528

Mylar 277as cxtensilble substrate 138,

201,278

NNA. See Numerical apertureNanocomposites 8,47,354,

370-380AFM of 373, 377-378 , 380carbon nanotubes 375-376,

380clay in 373, 376characterization of 374HRTEM of 376laser-induced fluorescence

spectroscopy 374processing of 17SEM of 373, 376TEM of 373,377,379

Nanofibers 273-275. See alsomicrofibrils

Nanofilters (NF) 295Nanofoams 154Nanoindentation 47,223-224

probes for 50,116Nanolayers 16Nanotechnology 21,219Nanotubes. See Carbon

nanotubesNational Institute for Standards

and Technology (NIST)58

Natural rubber 4, 166, 201, 382NC-AFM. See Noncontact AFMNear edge x-ray absorption fine

structure (NEXAFS)463-464

Near field scanning opticalmicroscopy (NSOM)449

polarized, for molecularorientation 449

with Raman microscopy 461Negative birefringence 82Negative staining 161, 168, 172Negative phase contrast 76Negative replicas 197Nematic liquid crystal 399

texture in LCPs 401-402Neutron scattering techniques

4,492,500NEXAFS. See Near edge x-ray

absorption fine structureNF. See Nanofilters

NIST. See National Institute forStandards and Technology

Nitric acid etching 183, 494N-methylpyrrolidone 233NMR. See Nuclear magnetic

resonanceNoise See also Signal-to-noise

ratioin AFM 58, 114in HREM 78in SEM imaging 86,93-94,210limit to resolution in EM

123-124Nomarski interference contrast.

See Differentialinterference contrast

Nomex 275Noncontact AFM (NCAFM)

47,49-50,101,112-113dual-pass technique with

112-113frequency modulated detection

in 112, 113Nonlinear geometric mixing

116Nonlinear motion of AFM

scanner 115Nonperiodic layer (NPL) crystal

415Nonwoven fabrics 222, 258-259Noryl GTX 351NSOM. See Near field scanning

optical microscopyNuclear magnetic resonance

(NMR) 18, 492,497-498

Nucleation density 5,313Numerical aperture (NA) 32,

73Nylon (or Polyamide). See also

Aromatic polyamidescomposite with glass fiber 11,

217,358,362-364etching of 181-182fibers 175, 250

fatigue failure of 256-257molded specimens 313nanocomposites 374-377polishing of 144PTA and 176particle filled 150, 367rubber toughening 157,296PLM of spherulites in 6-7,

150,313

Index

SEM of fracture 215staining of 161-164,167-169,

175, 180Nyquist criterion 73

oObjective aperture 30, 71, 80Objective lenses 30-32 , 71

image formation by 71-73in TEM 71

OCT. See Optical coherencetomography

Off-axis aberrations 73-4Off-axis reflections in fiber

diffraction 69OM. See Optical microscopyOptical coherence tomography

(OCT) 438-439for optical sectioning 455polarization sensitive 438

Optical microscopy (OM) 18-19,31-35,484-485. Seealso Polarized lightmicroscopy

applied tocomposite polymers 355,

360,365,368extracted filler particles

357-359fibers 251latex 384multiphase polymers 332,

338artifacts in 489basic optics of 29,68-69birefringence imaging in 438calibration 57compound microscope 31confocal scanning microscope

(CLSM) 21,358,436-437

diffraction limit for 72-73dynamic hot stage 60, 132,

399fluorescence microscopy 28,

454-456illumination systems for 29-

33, 78-79imaging modes 32-33, 481Kohler illumination 78-79microtomy for 147-150near field scanning 449phase contrast 33, 76polarized light 34, 83-85

Index

resolution 18,29, 72-74, 481,483

specimen preparation methodsfor 132, 143-145,147-149

stereo microscopes 28,31,132-133,479-481

Optical path difference 68, 455Optical sectioning 357, 454-455

apertures and 454DIC for 454Optical coherence tomography

(OCT) for 455STEM and 454-455wide field 455

Optical texture, of LCPs400-402

Optic axisof birefringent object 81-84of instrument 437,454

Ortho-phosphoric acid. Seephosphoric acid

Oscillatingcantilever, in AFM 49,98-99,

106-110knife in microtomy 153, 450

Osmium tetroxide (OS04)staining 162-165,180-181

examples of use 161-163,166,304

inclusion methods 164-165of multiphase polymers 155,

329,339practical details 164safety precautions when using

162for SEM and SPM 165for TEM 163-165two step reactions 163

OS04' See Osmium tetroxideOversampling 74Overvoltage 91

PPA6 (Polyamide-6). See NylonPAA. See Polyacrylic acidPackaging 11,14,276,329

electronic 287,296food 373

Paints 140, 151emulsions for 380

PAN. See PolyacrylonitrilePaper, emulsions for 380

Parallel EELS (PEELS)461-462

Parison 14Particle Atlas 358a-particle emitters, anti-static

103Particle filled composites

366-370carbon-black filled 368-369

Particle size 56, 159distribution 114,141,177,

309effect on film formation 393measurement of 385-386

PBI. See PolybenzimidazolePBO. See PolybenzobisoxazolePBT. See Polybutylene

terephthalatePBZO. See Poly-p-phenylene-

benzobisoxazolePBZT. See Poly-p-phenylene

benzobisthiazolePc. See PolycarbonatePCL. See Poly-e-caprolactonePOAC. See Polydiallyldime-

thylammoniumchloridePOMS. See PolydimethylsiloxanePE. See PolyethylenePEB. See Ethene-co-1-butenePEOOT. See Poly-3,4-ethylene-

dioxythiophenePEEK. See Poly ether ether

ketonePeelback method (for fibersl

films) 146-147,200cleavage plane splitting

technique 146examples 147,414

PEELS. See Parallel EELSPEL See PolyetherimidePenning sputtering 203,

205-206Pentacene 288PEO . See Polyethylene oxidePepper and salt texture 282,

401-402Perlluorodecalin 442Permanganate-acid etching 159,

168,184-188,315Permanganic acid 184PET. See Polyethylene

terephthalatePeterlin model (of drawing

process) 10, 250, 278

529

PETG. See Polyethyleneterephthalate-co-1,4-cyclohexanedimethyleneterephthalate

Phase contrast 33,76-77,481AFM 106-109in OM 19,33,76condenser lens for 79in TEM 43, 76-77

Phase (contrast) imaging 49AFM examples 158, 332-337OM examples 161,331-332,

338,360TEM examples 169, 280

PHB. SeePoly-3-hydroxybutyrate

PHBA See p-hydroxybenzoicacid

PHIC. See Polyhexyl isocyanatePhosphoric acid

as etchant 184with potassium permanganate

184-187as substrate 138

Phosphotungstic acid (PTA)stain 161,171 ,175-177

examples of use 173, 176,339-340,385

literature review 175practical details 176

PhotoBCS. See Photodefinablebenzocyclobutene

Photodefinablebenzocyclobutene(PhotoBCB) 291-292

Photodiode detector 99Photon tunneling microscope

449Photosensitizers, by NSOM 449PHV. See Poly

3-hydroxyvaleratep-hydroxybenzoic acid (PHBA)

400,413PID . See Proportional-integral-

differentialPiezoelectric elements in SPM

46,99-100, 106Pigments 11,32, 172,262Pinhole lens, for SEM 87Piperazine 303Pipes, from PVC 349Pixel (picture element) 30, 73

size, effect on resolution 73-74,114

530

Plan apo 32Plasma etching 188-194Plastics 3,308-353. See also

Thermoplastic(s)amorphous polymers

316-318characterization of 309-311competitive analysis 349-353extrusion of 311-312failure analysis of 349-353fracture of 214---216multiphase polymers

321-349semicrystalline polymers

318-321skin-core structures 315-316spherulites 313-315toughening 8,323-326

Platinum/carbon 138, 198, 203,382

Platinum coating 204,317,400PLM. See Polarized light

microscopyPMMA. See Polymethyl

methacrylatePMMA/PS, See Polystyrenel

polymethyl methacrylatePoint-to-point resolution 72,77Polarization 34

colors 35,83-84plane of 80, 82-83state 34,80-81,83,438

Polarization sensitive opticalcoherence tomography(PS-OCT) 438

Polarized light 80-85circularly polarized light 35,

80,405elliptically polarized light 80extinction positions 35, 83-

84, Color plate IIlenses for 32linear or plane polarized light

80Polarized light microscopy

(PLM) 34---35,83-85,132,154,278

applied tofibers 253LCPs 4D0-403molded bar 313,320spherulites 6, 7, 283

hot stage 399Polarizer (Polar) 34

Polarizing microscopy. SeePolarized lightmicroscopy

Polishing methods 142-145artifacts caused by 142-143examples 142-146,365-366,

403-404, Color plate XIfollowed by etching

144---145for thin sections 145-146

PolScope 438Poly-3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene

(PEDOT) 298, 393Polyacetal. See

Polyoxymethylene(PaM)

Poly(acrylic acid) (PAA) 198,200-201

Polyacrylonitrile (PAN) 297hollow fiber membranes from

305Polyamide. See Nylon. See also

Aromatic polyamidesPolybenzimidazole (PBI) 230,

296,300-301drying method 230hollow fiber membranes from

305membranes of 296, 305

Polybenzobisoxazole (PBO) 45,153,272,325

fibers 153, 272Polybenzyl L-glutamate 291Polybutadiene (PB)

crosslinking of 381staining methods for 161

Poly(butylene terephthalate)(PBT) 137,157,492

blends 168, 182ductile matrix polymer 325etching of 191specimen preparation 137,

316,336spherulites in 314zones of 321

Polycaprolactone 85Polycarbonate (PC) 151,153,

281,492compact disks 317-319crazing in 218in multilayered film 292probes for 447staining method 329SAXS of 282

Index

Poly(diallyldimethyl-ammonium chloride)(PDAC) 233, 395

cryo-TEM of 395Polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS)

330AFM of 311

Poly-s-caprolactone (PCL) AFMof 225

Polyesters. See also Aromaticcopolyesters

as embedding media151-152

etching method 196fatigue fracture of 257fibers 165,251-257,267,269films 191,283heat aging of 254high speed spun 264in polarized light 253SEM of 257staining for 164, 183

Poly(etherether ketone) (PEEK)138, 185, 187

Polyetherimide (PEl) 206, 356Polyethersulfone (PES) 297Polyethylene (PE) 5, 122, 280.

See also High densitypolyethylene (HDPE);Low density polyethylene(LDPE); Ultrahighmolecular weight PE(UHMWPE)

blends 335radiation damage in 119,

122-123electron diffraction of 70,

122,280etching of 184, 188, 200fibers 200, 252-253high modulus fibers

270-272films 271,279-281,376hollow fiber membranes 308industrial films 282-284, 287-

288,293HREM of 285lamellae in 52, 184, 280, 284melt cast film 83, 281melt extruded 287microporous membranes 289,

298PLM of 253, Color Plate IImicrotomy of 155

Inde x

replicat ion meth ods for 201single crystals 123, 135- 136staining methods for 170,

173-1 75thin film preparation 135, 139

Poly(ethylene-block-polyferro-cenyldimethylsilane ) (PS-PFS) 279

Poly(ethylene oxide) (PEa)183

AFM 224Poly(ethylene-polypropylene) 8Poly(ethylene-ran-methacrylic

acid) (EMAA) 285Poly(ethylene terephthalate)

(PET) 11, 84, 105, 138,182, 277, 282

Chemical force microscopy(CFM) for 442

blend s of 335, 409etching of 182,185,189-1 91,

195fibers 9,147, 165,214,253,

163-265films 192, 277-287fracture of 255-256melt crystallization of 224in mult ilayered films 292SAXS for 282, 500SEM for 265, 278-279staining method for 163-1 65,

177TEM for 163,165,265,3 52,409thin film preparation 138WAXS for 500

Poly(ethylene terephthalate-co-l,4-cyclhexanedimeth yleneterephthalate) (PETG)292

Poly(ethylene-eo-vinyl alcohol)(EVOH) 94, 155, 348

blends 155, 348nanocomposites 374

Poly(hexyl isocyanate) (PHIC)291

Poly-3-hydroxybutrate (PHB)183, 199

biodegradable 347etching of 187

Poly-3-hydroxyvalerate (PHV)347

Polyimide (PI) films 282Polyisoprene 4Poly(lactic acid) 230, 348

Polymer blends. See BlendsPolymer coatings 2, 380-3 98

list of polymers used 15adhesion of 15processes with 15surfaces of 140wettability and 388-398

Polymeric light emitting diodes449

Polymers. See also Amorphouspolymers; Aromat icpolymers; Blends;Composite polymers;High performancepolymers ; Multiphasepolymers; Rigid rodpolymers; Semicrystallinepolymers; Single phasepolymers

acronyms for 521applications of 2,250-418biodegradable 347- 349charac terization of 17-21classes of 3colloids and 394-398crosslinking and 119crystallinity loss of 121-122definitions of 2-3deformation in 340degradation of 13etching of (summary) 195high melting point 78high molecular weight 288LCPs 8mass loss in 120materials of 1-3measurement values of 208morphology of 3-8processes with 8-17radiation and 118-120staining for (summary)

179-180starburst 117structure of (summary) 480surfactants and 394viscosity of 13

Poly(meth yl methacrylate)(PMMA) 37, 110, 111,119,151,154,1 91, 282

amorphous polymer 316bea m damage of 209blends 330, 335, 458, 466,

518block copolymers 119, 345

531

brittl e matrix polymer 325EFTEM for 462electron interaction volume in

38etching methods 195- 196films 110, 191,448harmonic imaging of 444nanocomposites 376replication method 197with SAN 462SAXS of 282staining method for 164, 167,

172-173 ,465Polymethyl methacrylate/

polystyrene. SeePolystyrene/ polymethylmethacrylate

Polyolefins 356. See alsoThermoplasticpolyolefin

chlorosulfonic acid for 281staining of 281surface pretreatment of 387

Polyoxymeth ylene (paM),(acetal) 119, 152, 187

polarized light micrography of6

single crystals of 135molded bar 320spherulites in 370

Poly(p-l ,2-dihydrocyclobutaphenyleneterephthalamide)(PPXTA) 272

Poly(phen ylene oxide) (PPO)171, 374

crazes 220etching of 374nanocomposites 374staining methods for 171-

172, 179Poly(phenylene sulfide) (PPS)

355,409Poly(phenyl ether) (PPE) 389Poly(p-phenylene-

benzobisoxazole) (PBZO)297

Poly(p-phenylenebenzobi sthiazole) (PBZT)45, 272, 297,400

extrusion of 411-41 2Poly(p-ph enylene

terephthalamide) (PPTA)45,399, 402, 409

532

Polypropylene (PP) 16, 151. Seealso Biaxially oriented PP

atactic (aPP) 3blends 158,326,334-335,338etching of 182-185,195film 200,278,287,442HEPP 223isotactic (iPP) 3,184-189,

224,330hollow fiber membranes from

305MAH-g-PP 375microporous membranes 206nanocomposites 374, 377reinforcement of 367replication methods for 200sectioning of 154-155,158staining methods for 165,

167-170, 175, 180syndiotactic PP (sPP) 3

Polypropylene/ethylenepropylene rubber (PP/EPR) 332

Polypyrrole (PPy) 298Polysaccharide(s) 141,348Polystyrene (PS) 2, 45, 282. See

also High impactpolystyrene

amorphous polymer 70, 316atactic 4, 141brittle matrix polymer

325-326crazing studies 219-221etching 191, 195films 219freeze drying of latex 229isotactic 122,281-282latex 173, 385-386, 390, 392nanocomposites 374-375optical properties of 68radiation effects on 121rubber toughening of 292,

309rigid 151SAXS of 282staining methods for 165,

168-170, 181syndiotactic 4, 168

Poly(styrene )-block-poly(ethene-co-but-1-ene )-block-poly(styrene) (SEBS)141,159,331-333

Polystyrene-block-t-butylacrylate(PS-b-PtBA) 442

Polystyrene-block-ferocenyldimethylsilane(PS-PFS) 279

Polystyrene-block-isoprene-block-styrene (SIS) 157

Poly(styrene-butadiene). SeeStyrene-butadiene rubber

Polystyrene-polybutadiene-polystyrene (PSIPB/PS).See styrene blockcoplymers

Polystyrene-polyethylene oxide337

Polystyrene-poly(methylmethacrylate) (PS-PMMA) 458

FFM of 104staining method 167TEM and STXM of 464-465X-ray tomography of 458

Polystyrene-poly(phenyleneoxide) (PS-PPO), singlephase thermoplastic309

Polysulfides, as coating 15Polysulfone 296, 299, 300

hollow fiber membranes from305

Polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE)119, 151, 155

AFM of 225,286extraction replicas of 201Chemical force microscopy

(CFM) of 442FESEM of membrane 305membranes 305-307radiation damage in 119wear deposited films 286

Polyurethanes (PUR)as coating 15etching method 183, 196fracture 345as multiphase polymers

345-347ocr of 455with polyacetal 346RIM processing 15, 345staining methods 163thermoplastic (TPU) blends

182,183,345Poly(vinyl acetate) (PVAC)

142,385 ,309Poly(vinyl alcohol) (PVOH)

142,201

Index

Poly(vinyl chloride) (PVC) 151,258,329

chlorinated polyethylenemultiphase polymer 328

as ductile matrix polymer 325FESEM for 258fracture of 232pipes from 349SAXS of 282staining method for 167, 181TEM and 281,328

Poly(vinylidene chloride)(PVDC) , latex particles384

Poly(vinylidene fluoride)(PVDF) 185, 297

POM. See PolyoxymethylenePorosity 141,260,297

of hollow fibers 305Positive birefringence 82Post-it" 387-388Potassium permanganate

(KMn04)' SeePermanganate-acid

PP. See PolypropylenePPE. See Poly(phenyl ether)PP/EPR. See Polypropylene/

ethylene propylene rubberPP-LDPE blends 16,294PPO. See Poly(phenylene oxide)PPTA. See Poly(p-phenylene

terephthalamide)PPXTA. See Poly(p-l,2-

dihydrocyclobutaphenyleneterephthalamide)

PPy. See PolypyrrolePrepreg 146,365Pressure-sensitive adhesives

387Probes in SPM 50-51. See also

Cantilevers; Scanningprobe microscopy

artifacts due to probegoemetry 115-117, 491

artifacts due to tip wear117-118

microfabrication of 50probe specimen interaction in

AFM 100-102for scanning thermal

microscopy 445-448silicon 50silicon nitride 50

Index

Probes in SEM 85-87BSE 88probe specimen interaction in

SEM 88-91probe size 86-88Secondary electrons 89-91Probes in STEM 85-86, 91

Problem solving 478-501adhesives 387coatings 389composites 362- 364engineering resins and plastics

349-354fiber studies 260-267films 287-292flow chart for 488instrumentation techniques

481-484interpretation considerations

488-491nanocomposites 376-379protocol for 478-480starting point for 478-480supporting char acterization s

492-500Processes 8-15,311-315,326,

403coating 15compounding 11, 294, 360,

376extru sion 12fiber extrusio n 8-9,270film extrusion 11, 277,284molding 12-14, 311- 315,31 9,

326Projector lens 30, 73Proportional-integral-different ial

(PID ) 99, 113Prostheses 224, 346Protective fabrics 270, 272PS. See PolystyrenePS-OCT. See Polarization

sensitive optical coherencetomography

PS/PB /PS. See Polystyrene -polybutadiene-polystyrene

PS-PFS. See Polyethylene-block-polyferrocenyl-dimeth ylsilane

PSIPMMA. See Polystyrenelpolymethyl meth acrylate

PS-PPO. See Polystyrene-poly(phenylene oxide)

PTA . See Phosphotungstic acid

PTFE. SeePolytetrafluoroethylene

Pull-off force 48, 442PVA. See Poly(eth ylene-vinyl

alcohol) ; Poly(vinylacetate); Poly(vinylalcohol)

PVc. See Poly(vinyl chloride)PVDF. See Poly(vinylidene

fluoride )PVF2 See Poly(vinylidene

fluoride )PZT. See Lead zirconate titanate

QQuality factor (Q) 98

for AFM cantilever oscillation106-109

effect of environment 98in fast scanning SPM 444harmonic imaging and 443in IC-AFM 99in NCAFM 112

Quant itat ive microscop y 56-59calibrat ion techniques 54,

57-59, 62, 121fundamentals of 56-59, 386image analysis 56-57, 114,

369, 450latex particle size analysis

309,385- 386stereology 57

Quartz crystal monitor 203Quart z wedge 84

RRadial distribution function

(RDF) 69Radial growth rate, of

spherulites 5Radiation

coherent 68incoherent 68synchrotron 457-459 ,494ultraviolet 387

Radiat ion dose 52, 120, 123,281

Radiation effects in EM118-1 23

art ifacts 122chemical changes 118-120crosslinking 119crystallinity loss 121dimensional changes 122

533

mass loss 121scission 118specimen heating 120-121

Radiation effects in SEM 52,123

Radiation induced contra st 196,310

Rad iation sensitive materials51-53

low dose TEM operation 53SEM operation for 52

Raman microscopy 18, 53,376, 449, 460-46 1, 492,497

with AFM 461analytical imaging with

460-461Coherent anti-Stokes Raman

scattering (CARS) 461dichroism in 461NSOM with 461Surface enhanced Raman

scatte ring (SERS) 461Tip-enh anced Raman

scatte ring (TERS) 461Raman spectroscopy 18, 187,

281,460, 492,497Random copolymers 337-345Rayleigh criterion 72-7 4RDF. See Radial distribution

functionReaction injection molding

(RIM) 15,311 , 345Reflection electro n microscopy

(REM) 28Reflected light microscopy 28,

33-34,132,484examples 144, 145, 353, 365,

404specimen preparation for

142-145,183,485Refractive index 68, 76

birefringence and 35, 81-82,283

measurement of 34, 283, 438and phase contrast 33

Reinforcement 8, 11, 354-357;See also Composites

fiber lengths of 360with fibers 144,354-357, 360,

367with microfibers 157with mineral fibers 367with parti cles 369-3 70

534

Relative humidity (RH). SeeHumidity

REM . See Reflection electronmicroscopy

Replication 19, 195-201artifacts in 490carbon replicas 184,198-200 ,

314,386detachment replicas 201direct replicas 198extraction replicas 201of fibers 200for OM 197for SEM 197using silicone rubber (Silastic

or Xantopren Blue) 197for TEM 198-201two stage replicas 199-201

Resin-rich regions 357,366Resins 308-353

amorphous polymers316-318

characterization of 309-311competitive analysis of

349-353engineering 2, 308-353extrusion of 311-312failure analysis of 349-353hackle in 349-350of multiphase polymers

321- 349photodefinable 291semicrystalline polymers

318-321single phase polymers

316-321skin-core structures in

315-316spherulites in 312-315thermoset 291, 308toughened 323-326toughened thermoset

326-327Resolution 18, 28, 68. See also

High resolution SEM;High resolution TEM

in AFM 47,51,103,114,342-343

in analytical microscopy53-56

definition of 28of detector 73in lens-based systems 72-76

chromatic aberration 75

diffraction limit 72-73focus and 75spherical aberration 75-76

of microscopy techiques,compared 29,484-487.

noise limited 123-124in OM 29,31, 73, 147point-to-point 72Rayleigh criterion, defined

72in SEM 37,41-42,52, 85-88,

90in STEM 44, 91in SThM 48in TEM 45,74-76,438-439x-ray 53-56, 91

Resorcinol-formaldehyde-latex(RFL) 177

as adhesive 268-269, 387in tire cords 268-269

Retardation 35, 438of biaxial films 283definition of 35, 81of fibers 253measurement of 84, 438

Reverse osmosis (RO)membranes 295,300-303

CA as 300RFL. See Resorcinol-

formaldehyde-latexRH . See HumidityRigid rod polymers

beam damage in 78, 120as high modulus fibers

411-412as LCPs 399Diffraction from 297,

412-414RIM. See Reaction injection

moldingRO . See Reverse osmosis

membranesRobinson detectors 38, 97Rotary microtomes 148,159Row nucleated structure 5-7Rubber 3

carbon black-filled 368-369chlorobutyl (CB) 177ebonite method for 177EPR 334,377GRC 327natural 4PPIEPR 332

Index

staining methods for 161,164,329

vulcanization of 3Rubber toughened polymers 8,

150,223,327-328Ru04' See Ruthenium

tetroxideRuthenium dioxide 170Ruthenium tetroxide (Ru04)

staining method 138,158, 166-173

artifacts and 169EELS and 169examples of use 171,379,

396,465Literature review 167-169PC and 329practical details 169-170

Ruthenium trichloride 170

SSaddle field ion gun 203,204SAED. See Selected area

electron diffractionSALS. See Small angle light

scatteringSAMs. See Self-assembled

monolayersSAN. See Styrene -acrylonitrileSANS. See Small angle neutron

scatteringSantovac-5 389SAXS. See Small angle x-ray

scatteringSBR. See Styrene-butadiene

rubberSBS. See Styrene-

butadiene-styreneScan generator, SEM 36Scan speed in SPM 113-114,

444-445Scanned sample SPM 115Scanned tip SPM 115Scanners for SPM 99-100

artifacts due to 114-115,490

Scanning Auger spectroscopy(SAM) 498-499

Scanning capacitance microscopy(SCM) 48

Scanning electron microscopy(SEM) 18, 35-42, 85-97.See also Field emissionSEM; High resolution

Index

SEM; Low voltage SEM;Variable pressure SEM

aberration corrected 440applied to

blends 327, 338, 346composites 218, 355, 359-

362,370,408fabrics 258-259fibers 147, 214, 253-258,

261-263,416films 279,285,288,

294-295fractures 212,214membranes 231,298-300,

302,306-307multi phase polymers 216,

327,338,324impact test samples

360-361latex particles 383-385,

454artifacts in 489-490

calibration 57-58charging effects 94-95,

207-209conductive coatings for 203-

207,317EDS with 55, 363, 497electron sources 39-41,85elemental mapping in 55-56,

351, 372examples

BEl and elemental mapping350-351

complementary study withAFM 287, 306, 406

complementary study withOM & TEM 301

with FIB 194, 440, 453-454fundamentals of 35-42specimen heating in 121IBS coating for 199,204-205,

317-318image formation in 92-94image interpretation 36,39,

485,488imaging signals 85-97final lens design for 86-87in situ deformation in

222-223low voltage operation 52, 94-

96, 133. See also Lowvoltage SEM

microtomy for 150

noise 39, 42, 86, 93-94, 123,208

optimization 42peelback for 146-147probe formation 85-87probe-specimen interactions in

88-91properties of 29radiation damage in 123repl ication methods for

197resolution 37,41-42,52,

85-88,90schematic of 36specimen preparation methods

for 133, 144, 146, 150,165, 170, 197

staining methods for 165-167, 170

types of 41,483Scanning-imaging microscopes

30-31Scanning ion microscope (SIM)

440Scanning probe microscopy

(SPM) 45-51 , 114,279,441-451,487

artifacts in 114-118,490-491

automated 449-451CFM 441-442cryomicrotomy for 154-157fast scanning 444-445feedback in 45of films 286-288microtomy for 150-154,

158-159motion control in 46of nanocomposites 373NSOM 449probes for 50-51probe tips 50-51schematic of 45specimen preparation for

140-142staining for 165-166SThM 445-449for surface analysis 464ultramicrotomy for 154

Scanning reflection electronmicroscopy (SREM) 28

Scanning thermal microscopy(STh M) 48,291,445-449

535

Scanning transmissionelectron microscopy(STEM) 28, 43-44,85-86,486-487

aberration corrected 439dedicated 44,486with EELS 138,461-462electron sources for 40FEG with 44HAADF in 44,145,233,285,

345,456of ionomer 285optical sectioning and

454-455probe-specimen interactions in

91radiation sensitivity and

123-124staining for 170techniques 486-487x-ray analysis in 55

Scanning transmission x-raymicroscopy (STXM)463-464

Scanning tunneling microscopy(STM) 46, 116,317,481,487

applied toCD surface features 318LCP microstructure

414-417microporous membranes

289conductive coatings for

203-207sample preparation for

140-141Scherzer focus position 75, 76Schlieren texture in PLM 401Schottky field emission gun 40Scission 118-119,121,209SCM. See Scanning capacitance

microscopySDS . See Sodium dodecyl

sulfateSE . See Secondary electronsSecondary electron imaging

(SEI) 39,93,191-193,482

examples 191-192,205,263,396

in LVSEM 39, 362-363optimization of 41-42in VPSEM 41

536

Secondary electrons (SE) 39,89-91

types of 39, 90produced by BSE 39

Secondary ion massspectrometry (SIMS) 18,464-466,498

Sectioning See Microtomycryosectioning. See

Cryomicrotomyoptical 357, 454-455physical, for 3D imaging

452-454serial 452

SEL See Secondary electronimaging

Selected area aperture 44,71-72

Selected area electron diffraction(SAED) 44, 122,275,412,481

Selective plane illuminationmicroscopy (SPIM) 455

Self-assembled monolayers(SAMs) 287,441

Self-reinforcing LCPs 403SEM. See Scanning electron

microscopySemicrystalline polymers 4-7 ,

318-321chlorosulfonic acid staining

173-175crystallization 5-7melt-drawn films 280-281SEM of 215, 284, 322, 324injection molding of 316lamellae 4-7,10,136,174,

175,206,280,284spherulites 7, 83-85, 163, 184,

189,313-315,320,322OS04staining 163PLM of 6,7,83,85,253TEM of 163,174,175,189,

280toughening of 339-340microstructure of molded part

14,313,315,320,330Senarmont compensator 84Sensitive tint plate 84Serial sectioning 452SERS . See Surface enhanced

Raman scatteringSet point 49, 102, 110, 445

ratio 110,327,450

Shadowing 19,183,186,199,203,285,384

Shear bands 4-5 ,212,412-413Shish kebab structure See Row

nucleated structureShrinkage 13, 253, 366

in amorphous polymers 14Signal-to-noise ratio (SNR)

resolution and 123-124,439visibility limit 93

SilasticSilicon SPM probes 50-51,98Silicone replica method 197Silicon nitride 50Silver nitrate staining method

178Silver sulfide insertion method

178SIM. See Scanning ion

microscopySimple microscopes 31SIMS. See Secondary ion mass

spectrometrySingle crystals 5, 136

AFM 136-137diffraction from 122formation 5, 135of PE 136TEM 135-136

Single phase polymers 308-309Single phase plastics 316-321

examples 309Single walled carbon nanotubes

(SWCNTs) 372,376-378,380

SIS. See Polystyrene-block-isoprene-block-styrene

Skin-core morphology (texture)12-13,168

examples 320,403-407,411in plastics and resins

315-316Sledge microtome 148Small angle light scattering

(SALS) 499Small angle neutron scattering

(SANS) 500Small angle x-ray scattering

(SAXS) 5, 186,297,481,499-500

AFM with 188,346,451,500of amorphous films 282crazing and 221

Index

TEM with 186, 233, 499STEM with 285

Smectic liquid crystals 45, 183,399

Snorkel lens, for SEM 86SNR. See Signal-to-noise ratioSodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS)

233,395Sodium hypochlorite 169Sodium (meta)periodate 169,

170Sonication, sample preparation

137,187examples 403, 409-412

Solvents for etching 181-183SPB. See Spherical

polyelectrolyte brushSpecimen preparation methods

132-234conductive coatings 201-211CPD 230-231cryogenic methods 226-234and cryomicroscopy 232-234drying 151, 226-234embedding 149etching 181-196fracture studies 212-217freeze drying 227-230freeze fracture-etching 231microtomy 147-160

mounting for 148-149, 152for OM 132-133,144peelback 146polishing 142-146replication 196-201for SEM 133,144single crystal formation

135-137for SPM 140-142, 154-159,

165,223-226staining 160-181for TEM 134-140, 150-157,

219,223,233Specimen support films 134Spectroscopy techniques 496-

499. See also Ramanspectroscopy; X-rayphotoelectronspectroscopy

Auger 498-499FfIR 496-497MS 18NMR 497-498XRF 496

Ind ex

Spher ical aberration 73-75,439Spherical polyelectrolyte bru sh

(SPB) 395Spherulites 4--7, 83--85,480

AFM of 189, 314, 315deformation of 10, 283elastomer additio n and 329permanganate etching

184-1 86in cast thin films 138SEM of 322PLM of 6, 7,83--85, 163, 253,

313,320in POM 370, 372structure of 6TEM of 163, 184

Spider silk 270, 275-276SPIM . See Selective plane

illumination microscopySpinn eret 9

contaminat ion of 267SPM. S