aide-mémoires

7/31/2019 aide-mémoires

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Frequency Adverbs - ALWAYS / USUALLY / OFTEN

Other Verbs(play, do, study, work, etc.)

requency Adverbs come BEFORE other verbs.

I always help the other students.My brother usually comes late to school.Jenny and Susan often study in the library after class.

BE Verb(am, is, are, was, were, etc.)

requency Adverbs come AFTER a BE verb.

I am always a good student.My brother is usually late to school.Jenny and Susan are often in the library after class.

Frequency Adverbs - NEVER / RARELY / SELDOM

Other Verbs(play, do, study, work, etc.)

Frequency Adverbs come BEFORE all verbs, except the BE verb.

I never bother the other students.My brother rarely comes to school late.Jenny and Susan seldom study in the library after class.

BE Verb(am, is, are, was, were, etc.)

Frequency Adverbs come AFTER a BE verb.

I am never a lazy student.My brother is rarely late to school.Jenny and Susan are seldom in the library after class.

Frequency Adverbs - NEVER / RARELY / SELDOM in Negative Sentences

Other Verbs(play, do, study,

work, etc.)

Frequency Adverbs come BEFORE all verbs, except the BE verb.

hen you use NEVER, RARELY, and SELDOM with a NEGATIVE sentence, youcannot use the word NOT. This is because the words NEVER, RARELY, and SELDOMare considered negatives, and you cannot use two negative words in one sentence.Sometimes you must also change the word order a little. Study these examplesbelow:

I don't bother the other students. [never] -> I never bother the other students.

My brother doesn't come to school late. [rarely] -> My brother rarely comes to school late.

Jenny and Susan don't study in the library.[seldom] -> Jenny and Susan seldom study inthe library.

BE Verb(am, is, are, was,

were, etc.)

Frequency Adverbs come AFTER a BE verb.

I am not a lazy student. [never] -> I am never a lazy student.

My brother isn't late to school. [rarely] -> My brother is rarely late to school.

Jenny and Susan aren't in the library. [seldom] -> Jenny and Susan are seldom in thelibrary.



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Using Nouns as Adjectives

Mary ate some (soup that tasteddelicious)Mary ate some delicious soup.

adjective + noun

REMEMBER: ADJECTIVES CAN NEVERBE PLURAL!

Mary ate some (soup made from vegetables)Mary ate some vegetable soup.

noun + noun

NOUNS WORKING AS ADJECTIVES CAN NEVERBE PLURAL!

PARTS OF SPEECH: ADVERBS

dverbs are words used to describe or modify verbs. Adverbs give more information about a verb.Use adverbs to make your writing more interesting.

Here are some examples:

DESCRIBE THE MAN'S ACTIONS:

He's working quickly. He's working ard.

He's working carefully. He's working fast."Quickly, carefully, slowly, hard,fast, hurriedly" are all adverbs.

He's working slowly. He's working urriedly.

Frank worked more yesterday . (WHEN)

Steve works here . (WHERE) Adverbs give information about thetime, place and manner of the action.

They work well together. (HOW)

ADJECTIVE ADVERB ADJECTIVE ADVERB

new ewly quick quickly Most adverbs have -ly at the end.

happy happily careful carefully

ADJECTIVE ADVERB ADJECTIVE ADVERB

hard hard fast fast Some adverbs are irregular.

early early good ell



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ADJECTIVE CLAUSES with PREPOSITIONS

Let's practice FORMAL adjective clauses.Study these examples:

I know the man. Mary is talking to him.

--> I know the man to whom Mary is talking.I saw the picture. You were pointing at it.-->I saw the picture at which you were pointing.

ADJECTIVE CLAUSES with PREPOSITIONS

here are a few ways to change these sentences,but in this exercise we'll use the informal way with no relative pronoun.

Study these examples:I know the man. Mary is talking to him. --> I know the man Mary is talking to.

I know the place. You were pointing to it. --> I know the place you were pointing to.

Adjective Clauses with Object Pronouns

Study these examples:for PEOPLE:

I said hello to the man. I saw him outside.FORMAL: --> I said hello to the man whom I saw outside.INFORMAL: --> I said hello to the man who I saw outside.INFORMAL: --> I said hello to the man that I saw outside.INFORMAL: --> I said hello to the man Ø I saw outside.

for THINGS:

The pen is mine. I bought it at Wal-Mart was inexpensive.FORMAL: --> The pen which I bought at Wal-Mart was inexpensive.INFORMAL: --> The pen that I bought at Wal-Mart was inexpensive.INFORMAL: --> The pen Ø I bought at Wal-Mart was inexpensive.

Adjective Clauses with WHOSE

Let's practice adjective clauses with WHOSE.Study these examples:

I know the policeman. His dog bit a man.--> I know the policeman whose dog bit a man.I bought an antique vase. Its value is priceless.

-->I bought an antique vase whose value is priceless.



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Adjective Clauses with Subject Pronouns

Study these examples:for PEOPLE:

I thanked the man. He helped me.

--> I thanked the man who helped me.--> I thanked the man that helped me.

for THINGS:

The pen is mine. It is on the desk.--> The pen which is on the desk is mine.--> The pen that is on the desk is mine.

Present/Future True Conditionals

IF-CLAUSE RESULT CLAUSE

Present True Situations:

simple present verb

Present True Situations:

simple present verb

If it rains,If I don't clean my apartment,

my car window leaks.my roommate complains.

If Marie doesn't eat inner,If I work,

she gets hungry at midnight.I earn money!

Future True Situations:simple present verb

Future True Situations:modal + simple present verb

If it rains, my window might leak.

If the phone rings, I will answer it.

If the weather is sunny later, we can go to the beach.

Present/Future True

IF-CLAUSE RESULT CLAUSE

PRESENT TRUE Situations:simple present verb

PRESENT TRUE Situations:simple present verb

If it rains,If I don't clean my apartment,

my car window leaks.my roommate complains.

If Marie doesn't eat dinner,If I work,

she gets hungry at midnight.I earn money!

FUTURE TRUE Situations:simple present verb

FUTURE TRUE Situations:modal + simple present verb

If it rains, my window might leak.

If the phone rings, I will answer it.

If the weather is sunny later, we can go to the beach.



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Present/Future Unreal (Untrue)

IF-CLAUSEUse a simple past verb.

ESULT CLAUSEUse would/could + present verb.

If it rained today,(It is sunny today.)

I would need an umbrella.(I don't need an umbrella.)

If I didn't practice English,(I practice English.)

I couldn't say much in English.(I can say a lot in English.)

If Marie were hungry,(Marie is not hungry.)

she would eat dinner.(She will not eat dinner.)

If I weren't happy,(I am happy.)

I wouldn't be smiling.(I am smiling.)

Past Unreal (Untrue)

IF-CLAUSEUse PAST PERFECT

RESULT CLAUSEUse WOULD + HAVE + PAST PARTICIPLE

If it had rained yesterday,(It did not rain yesterday.)

I would have needed an umbrella.(I didn't need an umbrella.)

If I hadn't done my homework,(I did my homework.)

I wouldn't have passed the test.(I did pass the test.)

If Marie had been hungry,(Marie was not hungry.)

she would have eaten dinner.(She did not eat dinner.)

If the teacher hadn't been angry,(The teacher was angry.)

he wouldn't have looked so upset.(He looked very upset.)

Past Unreal (Untrue)

IF-CLAUSE

Use PAST PERFECT

RESULT CLAUSEUse WOULD + HAVE + PAST

PARTICIPLE

If it had rained yesterday,(It did not rain yesterday.)

I would have needed an umbrella.(I didn't need an umbrella.)

If I hadn't done my homework,(I did my homework.)

I wouldn't have passed the test.(I did pass the test.)

If Marie had been hungry,(Marie was not hungry.)

she would have eaten dinner.(She did not eat dinner.)

If the teacher hadn't been angry,(The teacher was angry.)

he wouldn't have looked so upset.(He looked very upset.)

Present Real (True) Conditionals + IF / WHEN

IF / WHENBoth "if" and "when" are used in Present Real Conditionals:

Using "if" suggests that something only happens sometimes.Using "when" suggests that something happens often.



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Present/Future Real (True) Conditionals

IF-CLAUSE RESULT CLAUSE Explanation:

simple present verb simple present verbif-clause uses simple presentresult clause uses simple present

If it rains,If it gets cold enough,If I don't do my homework,

my car windowleaks.water becomes ice.I learn nothing.

<-expresses an established or predictable fact, or it expresses ageneral truth

If Marie doesn't eat dinner,If I exercise,

she gets hungry at midnight.I look great!

<-expresses a habitual situation or a habitual activity.

If someone calls, take a message please. <-gives a command

sim ple present verb m odal + sim ple present verbif-clause uses simple presentresult clause uses modal + verb

If it rains, my window might leak. <-expresses a fact

If the phone rings, I will answer it. <-expresses a future situation

If the weather is sunn y, we can go t o the beach Sunda y. < -expresses a future activity



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Present Unreal (Untrue) Conditionals


past tense verbwould + present verbcould + present verb

if-clause uses simple pastresult clause uses modal + present

If it rained oday,(It's not raining today)

If I didn't have his address,(I have his address.)

I would need an umbrella.(I do not need an umbrella.)

I couldn't send an invitation.(I can send an invitation.)

<-Present Untrue Conditionals are used to talk about situations that are nottrue.

They are used when you want to fantasize about something, or speculate ona situation.

If Jason weren't here,(He is here.)

If I were you,(I am not you.)

he couldn't help us.(He can help us.)

I would call him.(I will not call him.)

In Present Untrue Conditionals, the "to be" verb is always "were" in the if-clause, for all subjects: I, you, he, she, it, we, and they.

If I had $500,I could buy some new clothes, or I couldtake a short trip.

When "could" is used in the result clause,it expresses a possibility.

If Cindy had a car, she would drive to school.When "would" is used in the result clause,it expresses a plan, or a probability.

Compare:Marsha: A) "I bought a car last week."Greg: B) "If I bought a car, I would buy a Porsche."

WordFORM

(how the word looks)FUNCTION

(how the word works)EXPLANATION:

A) bought past tense verbexpressespast tense

In sentence (A), "bought" looks like a past tense verb, and it works like a past tense verb.Marsha now has a car because she bought one.

B) bought past tense verbexpressesan untruesituation

In sentence (B), "bought" looks like a past tense verb, BUT it is expressing a situation that isnot real. Greg did not buy a car. He is talking about his fantasy car!



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Past Unreal (Untrue) Conditionals


past perfect tensewould + have + past participlecould + have + past participle

if-clause: past perfectresult clause: modal +have +past participle

If it had rained esterday,(It did not rain yesterday.)

If I hadn't known his address,(I knew his address.)

I would have needed an umbrella.(I did not need an umbrella.)

I couldn't have sent an invitation.(I sent an invitation.)

<-Past Untrue Conditionals are used to talk about situations inthe past that were not true.

They are used when you want to fantasize about something, or speculate on a situation that didn't happen.

If Jason hadn't been here,(He was here.)

If I had been you,(I was not you.)

he couldn't have helped us.(He helped us.)

I would have called him.(you did not call him.)

In Past Untrue Conditionals, the "to be" verb is always "hadbeen" in the if-clause, for all subjects: I, you, he, she, it, we, andthey.

If I had had $500,I could have bought some new clothes, or I couldhave taken a short trip.

When "could" is used in the result clause, it expresses apossibility.

If Cindy had owned a car, she would have driven to school.When "would have ___" is used in the result clause, itexpresses a certainty. For sure you would have done that.

Compare:Marsha: A) "I bought a car last week. It's a Ford."Greg: B) "If I had bought a car, I would have bought a Porsche."

WordFORM

(how the word looks)FUNCTION

(how the word works)EXPLANATION:

A) bought past tense verbexpressespast tense

In sentence (A), "bought" looks like a past tense verb, and it works like apast tense verb. Marsha now has a car because she bought one.

B) had bought past perfectexpressesa past untruesituation

In sentence (B), "had bought" looks like past perfect, BUT it is expressing apast situation that is not real. Greg did not buy a car. He is talking about hisfantasy car.



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INDIRECT (REPORTED) SPEECH TENSE CHANGE LIST

DIRECT QUOTE INDIRECT (REPORTED) SPEECH

SIMPLE PRESENT changes to SIMPLE PAST

"I work at Toyota.""I don't work at Honda.""I am a manager.""I'm not a salesman."

He said he worked at Toyota.He said he didn't work at Honda.He said he was a manager.He said he wasn't a salesman.

RESENT PROGRESSIVE changes to PAST PROGRESSIVE

"I'm cleaning my house today.""I'm not going to work today.""Mary is dancing in the show.""She isn't singing in the show."

He said he was cleaning his house today.He said he wasn't going to work today.Lee said that Mary was dancing in the show.He said she wasn't singing in the show.

PRESENT PERFECT changes to PAST PERFECT

"I've already seen that movie.""I haven't heard that song before.""Gary has called three times.""He hasn't left any messages though."

She said she had already seen that movie.She said she hadn't heard that song before.Jack said Gary had called three times.He said Gary hadn't left any messages though.

PRESENT PERFECT PROGRESSIVE changes to PAST PERFECT PROGRESSIVE

"Jeff has been exercising.""He hasn't been studying.""Celine and Lee have been working.""They haven't been sleeping."

She said Jeff had been exercising.She said he hadn't been studying.Ling said they had been working.She said they hadn't been sleeping.

SIMPLE PAST changes to PAST PERFECT

"I saw my friend.""I didn't see Monika.""I was late.""I wasn't on time."

She said she had seen his friend.She said she hadn't seen Monika.He said he had been late.He said he hadn't been on time.

- ODALS-PRESENT MODALS change to PAST MODALS

"I will wash the dishes.""I won't go."

She said she would wash the dishes.He said he wouldn't go.

"I can dance."

"I can't swim."

He said he could dance.

He said he couldn't swim.

"There may be a problem.""There may not be any milk left."(No contraction)

She said there might be a problem.She said there might not be any milk left.(No contraction)



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HAVE TO / HAS TO and MUST change to HAD TO

"I have to clean my room.""I don't have to clean the kitchen."

He said he had to clean his room.He said he didn't have to clean the kitchen.

"Sara has to work today."

"She doesn't have to go to class."

Peter said Sara had to work today.

He said she didn't have to go to class.

"I must go to the store."(No negative form possible)

She said she had to go to the store.(No negative form possible)

THESE MODALS DO NOT CHANGE:would, could, might, ought to, should

"I would like a sandwich." He said he would like a sandwich.

"I couldn't go to the party." She said she couldn't go to the party.

"It might rain today." The weatherman said it might rain today.

"You really ought to do your homework." The teacher said I really ought to do my homework.

"You should be nicer to your sister." My mom said I should be nicer to my sister.

Future Time Clauses1 1

-EXAMPLE-FIRST: Sebastian takes a shower. THEN: Sebastian goes to bed.

[main clause] [time clause]

Sebastian will take a shower before he goes to bed.

[USE: future with WILL] [USE: simple present tense]

--OR--

[time clause] comma - > , [main clause]

After Sebastian takes a shower, he will go to bed.

[USE: simple present tense] comma -> , [USE: future with WILL]

.

FUTURE TIME CLAUSES 2

[main clause] [time clause]

Sebastian will take a shower before he goes to bed.

[USE: future with WILL/BE GOING TO] [USE: simple present tense]

-- R--

[time clause] comma > , [main clause]

After Sebastian takes a shower, he will go to bed.

[USE: simple present tense] comma -> , [USE: future with WILL/BE GOING TO]

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**Important Notes:The time clause must have a simple verb - no modals!When the time clause is put in the first position, you must use a comma



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Past Perfect 1

Past perfect is used when there are two past events.The past perfect event happened first in time.

-EXAMPLE-FIRST: The thief spent the money.THEN: The police caught the thief.

The thief had spent the money before the police caught him.OR: Before the police caught the thief, he had spent the money."had spent" tells us that event happened first in time.Past perfect key words: already, yet

Simple Past / Past Perfect

RULE: When you have a choice between past perfect or simple past,the past perfect event happened first in time.

-EXAMPLE-FIRST: The thief spent the money.THEN: The police caught the thief.

The thief had spent the money before the police caught him.

OR: Before the police caught the thief, he had spent the money."had spent" tells us that event happened first in time.Past perfect key words: already, yet

Past Perfect Progressive 1

USAGE:Past perfect progressive is used for an event that was in progress in the past.It is also used for events that happened in the recent past.

EXAMPLE: The police had been looking for the robber for two months before they finally found him.

MEANING:The police actively searched for two months, and THEN they found the robber."had been looking" tells us that the event took a while to finish.

FORMAT: had + been + ___ing = They had been looking for two months.

Simple Present Time Clauses 1

[main clause] ay always akes a shower before she oes o bed. [time clause]

[USE: simple present tense] [USE: simple present tense]

--OR--

[time clause] Before May goes to bed, she always takes a shower. [main clause]

[USE: simple present tense] omma -> , [USE: simple present tense]

PRESENT TIME CLAUSES 1

[main clause] ay always akes a shower before she oes o bed. [time clause]

[USE: simple present tense] [USE: simple present tense]

--OR--

[time clause] Before May goes to bed, she always takes a shower. [main clause]

[USE: simple present tense] omma -> , [USE: simple present tense]

FUTURE TIME CLAUSES 1

[main clause] Sebastian will ake a shower before he goes o bed. [time clause]

[USE: future with WILL/BE GOING TO] [USE: simple present tense]

--OR--

[time clause] After Sebastian takes a shower, he will go o bed. [main clause][USE: simple present tense] comma -> , [USE: future with WILL/BE GOING TO]

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