Tectonophysics 483 (2010) 327–343

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Tectonophysics

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Active fault, fault growth and segment linkage along the Janauri anticline(frontal foreland fold), NW Himalaya, India

Javed N. Malik a,⁎, Afroz A. Shah a,1, Ajit K. Sahoo a,2, B. Puhan a, Chiranjib Banerjee a, Dattatraya P. Shinde b,Navin Juyal b, Ashok K. Singhvi b, Shishir K. Rath a

a Department of Civil Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur, Kanpur 208 016, UP, Indiab Physical Research Laboratory, Ahmedabad 380 009, Gujarat, India

⁎ Corresponding author.E-mail addresses: javed@iitk.ac.in (J.N. Malik), afroz

sahooajitkumar@gmail.com (A.K. Sahoo), shindedp@prlnavin@prl.res.in (N. Juyal), singhvi@prl.res.in (A.K. Sing

1 Now at School of Earth & Environmental ScienTownsville Queensland 4811, Australia.

2 Now at Reliance India Limited, Mumbai.

0040-1951/$ – see front matter © 2009 Elsevier B.V. Aldoi:10.1016/j.tecto.2009.10.028

a b s t r a c t

a r t i c l e i n f o

Article history:Received 27 October 2009Accepted 30 October 2009Available online 10 November 2009

Keywords:Active faultsFault related fold growthLateral propagation of faultSegment linkagePaleoseismologyNW Himalaya

The 100 km long frontal foreland fold — the Janauri anticline in NW Himalayan foothills represents a singlesegment formed due to inter-linking of the southern (JS1) and the northern (JS2) Janauri segments. Thisanticline is a product of the fault related fold growth that facilitated lateral propagation by acquiring morelength and linkage of smaller segments giving rise to a single large segment. The linked portion marked byflat-uplifted surface in the central portion represents the paleo-water gap of the Sutlej River. This area iscomparatively more active in terms of tectonic activity, well justified by the occurrence of fault scarps alongthe forelimb and backlimb of the anticline. Occurrence of active fault scarps on either side of the anticlinesuggests that the slip accommodated in the frontal part is partitioned between the main frontal thrust i.e. theHimalayan Frontal Thrust (HFT) and associated back-thrust. The uplift in the piedmont zone along southernportion of Janauri anticline marked by dissected younger hill range suggests fore-landward propagation oftectonic activity along newly developed Frontal Piedmont Thrust (FPT), an imbricated emergent thrustbranching out from the HFT system. We suggests that this happened because the southern segment JS1 doesnot linked-up with the northwestern end of Chandigarh anticline segment (CS). In the northwestern end ofthe Janauri anticline, due to no structural asperity the tectonic activity on HFT was taken-up by two (HF1 —

in the frontal part and HF2 — towards the hinterland side) newly developed parallel active faults (HajipurFault) branched from the main JS2 segment. The lateral propagation and movements along HF1 and HF2resulted in uplift of the floodplain as well as responsible for the northward shift of the Beas River. GPR andtrench investigations suggest that earthquakes during the recent past were accompanied with surfacerupture. OSL (optical stimulated luminescence) dates from the trench suggests occurrence of at least twoevents during the recent historic past, with the latest — Event II during 1500 AD (?).

.shah@jcu.edu.au (A.A. Shah),.res.in (D.P. Shinde),hvi).ces, James Cook University,

l rights reserved.

© 2009 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction

The tectonic collision between Indian and Eurasian plates hasmade the Himalayan arc as one of the most seismically activeregions of the world. Since collision (∼50 Ma) along the Indus–Tsangpo Suture Zone, the successive zones of deformation haveprogressively advanced southward, resulting in faulting and foldingalong the prominent structural features of the Himalayan orogenicbelt (Gansser, 1964; Seeber et al., 1981; Lyon-Caen and Molnar,1983). From north to south these prominent structural features

represent the principal intracrustal thrusts: the Main CentralThrust (MCT), Main Boundary Thrust (MBT), and HimalayanFrontal Thrust (HFT), with younger initiation ages towards thesouth (Thakur, et al., 2007). The strain accumulated across theHimalayan zone due to ongoing deformation has been episodicallyreleased in form of large to moderate magnitude earthquakes inthe region. The recent 2005 (Mw 7.6) Muzaffarabad earthquake hasagain proved the capability of the Himalaya in producing largemagnitude earthquakes. Field investigations revealed a rupture ofabout 65 km along an earlier identified “Tanda active fault” havinglateral extend of about 16 km (Nakata et al., 1991; Kaneda et al.,2006; Yeats and Hussain, 2006). These earthquakes have raisedconcerns toward the seismic hazard assessment in Himalaya,especially in the foothill zones bordering the thickly populatedIndo-Gangetic Plain. Apart from few large magnitude events in NWHimalaya with M≥7.6 viz. 1555 and 1885 Kashmir events; 1905Kangra and recent 2005 Muzaffarabad, no historical records areavailable from this region. In seismically active regions of the

Fig. 1. (a) DEM of the area around NWHimalaya showing prominent NNW–SSE striking frontal foreland fold— the Janauri anticline. Inset showsmap of India with location of Janaurianticline and study area, (b) Profile AA` is across the Hajipur fault in the northwestern fringe of Janauri anticline, (c) BB` is drawn in the central part of Janauri anticline, and (d) CC` isacross the southern fringe showing the Frontal Piedmont Thrust. HFT — Himalayan Frontal Thrust, BT — Back Thrust, SnT — Soan Thrust and NaT — Nalagarh Thrust.

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world, active faults are considered to be the source for largemagnitude earthquakes, and the paleoseismic investigations alongsuch faults have proved their capability in producing large earth-quakes periodically (e.g. Nakata, 1989; McCalpin, 1996; Yeatset al., 1997; Meghraoui and Doumaz, 1996; Oatney et al., 2001;Meghraoui et al., 2003; Malik and Nakata, 2003; Pantosti et al.,2004; Malik and Mathew, 2005; Lavé et al., 2005; Kumar et al.,2006; Kaneda et al., 2006; Yeats and Hussain, 2006). It is thereforeextremely important to have precise active fault map in the regionlike Himalaya, where not much information is available on thedistribution of active faults. Because without such studies thehazard posed by these faults may be underestimated.

The studies on active tectonic deformation in theHimalayan frontalzone from Nepal and India have revealed occurrence of uplifted-tiltedlate Pleistocene and Holocene fluvial terraces and alluvial fan surfaces,with prominent fault scarps ranging in height from 5 to 50 m resulteddue ongoing active deformation along the Himalayan Frontal Thrust(HFT), Main Dun Thrust (MDT) and the Main Boundary Thrust(MBT) (Nakata, 1972, 1975; Valdiya, et al., 1984; Nakata, 1989; Nakataet al., 1990; Valdiya, 1992; Yeats et al., 1992; Mugnier et al., 1998;Wesnousky et al., 1999; Lavé and Avouac, 2000; Malik and Nakata,2003; Malik et al., 2003; Mugnier et al., 2004). However, still there areseveral areas particularly in NWHimalayawere very little informationis available.

Along with active fault identification it is important to know thepattern of deformation, which in turn, helps in understanding theoverall evolution of the landscape and also towards identifying thegeometry of the fault related fold segments. Frontal fault-propaga-tion fold growth in forward as well as lateral directions arecommonly noticed in active fold-and-thrust belt (e.g. Mueller andTalling, 1997; Delcaillau et al., 1998; Champel et al., 2002; Delcaillauet al., 2006; Malik and Mohanty, 2007; Simoes et al., 2007). Lateralpropagation of fault and related development of fold to some extenthas been attributed to slip along the fault during major earthquakes(Walsh et al., 2002). It has been suggested that fault and associatedfold grows by radial propagation and linkage of several smaller fold-segments develops an elongated fold or anticline (Catwright et al.,1995; Davis et al., 2005). Development of elongated folded segmentsand lateral propagation results in fluvial diversion in fold-and-thrustbelt, hence helps to rebuilt the landscape history (e.g. Be´s de Bercet al., 2005; Champel et al., 2002; Burbank et al., 1999; Burbank andAnderson, 2001).

Keeping this in mind we focused our present study along thefrontal foreland fold — Janauri anticline (30°45′–32°00′ N Latitude,75°45′–76°35′ E Longitude) emphasizing towards (1) mapping anddocumenting the traces of active faults, and (2) understandingthe segmentation relationship based on remote sensing and fieldobservations. The study area falls under meizoseismal zone of 1905Kangra event (Fig. 1). Apart from some preliminary informationavailable on active faults (Nakata, 1972; Malik and Nakata, 2003;Malik and Mohanty, 2007), no attempt has been made to mapactive faults from this region. In this paper we report several newlyidentified active fault traces and attempted to propose a model toexplain the pattern of ongoing deformation. For identification ofactive faults and related landforms, along with high resolutiondeclassified CORONA KH-4B satellite data (stereo pair) with groundresolution of approximately 6 feet acquired during 28 September1971, Shuttle Radar Topographic Mission (SRTM) 3 arc second datawith resolution of about 90 m and SOI (Survey of India) topo-graphic maps (scale 1:50,000) were used. Digital Elevation Model(DEM) extracted from SRTM was utilized to construct the terrainprofiles — to understand the morphology of the landscape andprominent breaks in the terrain (Fig. 1a–d). To confirm the patternof faulting and most recent earthquake event we excavated a trenchacross a branching fault of HFT in the northern fringe of the Janaurianticline.

2. Geomorphology

2.1. Geomorphological setting and active fault distribution

The area along the NW Himalayan foothill zone shows three majorgeomorphic zones (Figs. 1 and 2) from north to south. These zones arebounded by major fault lines (Fig. 1a). The longitudinal intermontanevalley — Soan Dun (Dun=valley) is the northern most majorgeomorphic unit in the study area. The Soan Dun is confined betweenthe Lower Siwalik Hills to its north and the Sub-Himalayan range (UpperSiwalik) in south. The boundary between the Lower Siwalik Hills andSoan Dun ismarked by Nalagarh Thrust (NaT) and the southern limit byBack-thrust (BT) along the back-limb of Janauri anticline. The Sub-Himalayan range marked by the Janauri anticline represents theyoungest foreland fold demarcating the southern boundary theHimalaya with respect to the Indo-Gangetic Plain (IGP) to its south.This vast flat alluvial plain (IGP) represents the present foreland basins(Nakata, 1972; Powers et al., 1998; Malik and Mohanty, 2007).The boundary between the Janauri anticline and Indo-Gangetic Plain ismarked by Himalayan Frontal Thrust (HFT).

The Sutlej and Beas Rivers emerging from higher Himalayas are themajor drainage in the region (Figs. 1–3). The Beas River borders to thenorthern fringe of the Janauri anticline and Sutlej River to its southbefore debauching on the Indo-Gangetic Plain. The growth of the100 km long Janauri anticline has influenced the flow paths of thesemajor rivers. The flat topped uplifted surface in the central part of theanticline marks the paleo-water gap of Sutlej River and a linked-upsegment formed by the linkage of two smaller fault segments (Malikand Mohanty, 2007).

3. Active fault distribution along Janauri anticline

Several traces of active fault scarps were identified in the centralportion along the Janauri anticline byMalik andMohanty (2007), but noground truthing was carried out. In this study re-interpretation andground truthing was carried out in the central portion and several newactive fault traces were identified in the central, and along thenorthwestern and southeastern fringes of Janauri anticline (Fig. 2b).Most prominent fault traces (HF1 and HF2) were observed from thenorthwestern fringe of the anticline on the left bankof Beas River (Figs. 2and 3). Some discontinuous traces were observed from the centralportion along forelimb and backlimb of the anticline (Figs. 2a and 8).These fault traces on the surface are discontinuous, but probablyconnects subsurface. Thediscontinuous pattern could bedue to the rapiddegradation as well as burial of the ground deformational features alongdynamic range fronts. These fault traces have displaced late Pleistocene-Holocenefloodplain surface along thenorthern fringe and central part ofthe Janauri anticline as well as alluvial fan deposits (Fig. 2b). In thesoutheastern fringe of the Janauri anticline, uplift has been observed inthe Piedmont Zone (Figs. 2a and 9).

3.1. Active fault along HFT in northwestern fringe of Janauri anticline

Two active fault traces strikingNNW–SSE, parallel to the trend of theHimalayanarcwere identified along thenorthwestern end of the Janaurianticline, named as Hajipur fault (Figs. 1–5 and refer profiles e-h inFig. 2). These faults (HF1 – in the front having boundary between theIndo-Gangetic Plain and HF2 – towards the hinterland side) havevertically displaced and warped the late Pleistocene to Holocenefloodplain deposits of the Beas River, made up of gravel and sandylithounits (Figs. 2a–5). Vertical displacement is revealed by welldeveloped southwest facing fault scarps ranging in height from 5 to15 m (Fig. 2b). Distinct back-tilting of the upliftedfloodplain surfacewasobserved along HF2 near the range front (Fig. 2a refer profile g and 4a).The HF1 and HF2 faults are about 2.5 km apart, marked by prominentstep like topography; this is well revealed in the topographic profiles —

Fig. 2. (a) Mosaic of CORONA photos of the frontal foreland fold — Janauri anticline. The Sutlej River in the southeast and the Beas River in the northwest defines the edges of theJanauri anticline. Black boxes show the location of Figs. 3a, 6a, 8a and 9a. The forelimb of anticline in the piedmont zone marks boundary with low-lying Indo-Gangetic Plain.Topographic profiles extracted from DEM across the fault scarps identified in the central part— a and b in along the forelimb, c and d along the backlimb, e and f across HF1 and, g andh across HF2. (b) Generalized geomorphic map of the study area along Janauri anticline. The alluvial fans (AF) occur as coalesced fans at the base of front. The flat-uplifted surface inthe central portion of the Janauri anticline marks the paleo-water gap of the Sutlej River. Two parallel active faults (Hajipur faults) propagating towards NW have been responsiblefor the deflection and shift of the Beas River further northwest.

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Fig. 2 (continued).

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Fig.3. (a)Close-upofCORONAphotosof thenorthern fringeof the Janauri anticlineshowing two tracesofnewly identifiedactive faultsHF1andHF2,namedasHajipur fault. Yellowboxmarks thelocation of Fig. 4a. Open arrow shows direction of lateral propagation of the faults. (b) Fault scarps associatedwith HF1 near Siprian and Bamonwal village. The height of the scarp is about 15 mwith gentle free-face. The total 15 m height is a cumulative height indicative of long-term deformation along HF1, and (c) NW–SE striking fault scarp along HF2 near Hajipur village. Themovements along this fault have displaced the floodplain deposits of Beas River resulting into 6 to 8 m high scarp. The scarp along HF2 trace shows less dissected morphology.

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Fig. 4. (a) Stereo-pair of CORONA photos of the area around Siprian and Hajipur village. The HF1 and HF2 fault traces are shown by black arrows. The height of the fault scarp is muchhigher along HF1 as compare to that along HF2. The HF1 scarp morphology is diffuse and degraded by more erosion (refer to Fig. 3a for location), and (b) Geomorphic sketchprepared from the above CORONA photo interpretation. Two levels of fluvial surfaces (T1 and T2) are displaced along the HF1 and HF2 faults.

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AA′ drawn across these faults (Fig. 1a and b). The HF1 fault extends forabout 8 to 8.5 km andHF2 for about 10 to 10.5 km (Figs. 2b and 3a). Thescarp height ranging from 10 to 15 mwas observed along the HF1 fault

Fig. 5. (a) 3DGPRprofile collected across theHF2 fault nearHajipur villagewith 200 MHz antenlow-angle thrust fault displacing the near sub-surface sediments of older floodplain of Beas Rgeoradar reflection between 0 m and 12 m horizontalmarker. (b) SW facing active fault scarp (arrows show trace of fault. For location refer to Fig. 3a. (c) Northwall trench section excavated acexcavated across HF2 fault scarp. F1, F2, F3 and F4 are the thrust faults dipping in NE direction

nearBamonwal–Siprianvillage, reduces up to 8 malong the strike andaslow as up to 2 to 3 m before it die out towards NW (Figs. 3a and 4). Thescarp height along HF2 ranges from 6 to 8 m near the range front, which

na (refer to Fig. 3a for location). Data collected in a 22 m longand10 mwide grid revealed aiver. Fault was traceable up to the depth of about 6 m from the surface with prominent∼5 m high) along HF2 at Sandhwal village. Trenching site is shown by black arrow and redrossHF2. (d) Interpretationwith fault traces and stratigraphic units onnorthwall of trench. Latest event has been observed along F1, F2 and F3 displacing the units a, b, c and d.

Fig. 5 (continued).

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is comparatively less than measured along HF1 (Figs. 3a, b and 4).Similarly reduction in height along the strike as seen along HF1was alsonoticed along the HF2 fault trace (Figs. 2b, 3a, c and 4a). Satellite datainterpretation, topographic profiles as well as field survey suggests thatthe surfacemanifestation of both the faults die out along the strike aswemove away from the hill range in NW direction, this is well justified bythe gradual reduction of the scarp heights along the HF1 and HF2 faults(Figs. 3a and 4). The fault scarp morphology along HF1 is much morediffusedanddegradedas compared toHF2 (Figs. 3a and4). Also thescarpalong HF2 has relatively lesser height and less dissected topography ascompared to that alongHF1 (Figs. 3a, c and4a). Thediffusedmorphologyof the HF1 suggests more erosion and probably an older scarp, whereasthe younger movement has been taken up by the HF2 fault showingsharper and less dissected topography. The gradual reduction in heightof the scarps is attributed to lateral propagation of faults and growth ofassociated folds along strike towards northwest. It is also suggested thatthe scarps along HF1 and HF2 with more height near the hill range areindicative of accumulation of greater displacements on faults ascompared to the area near the tip where the faults gradually die out.This phenomenon of lateral propagation of HF1 and HF2 faults has beenresponsible for the northward deflection–diversion of Beas River (Figs. 2and 3). The geometric occurrence of these faults indicates phenomenonof imbricated fault system, most commonly observed in fold-and-thrustbelts. The morphological characteristics and length of both the faultssuggest that HF2 fault is more active as compare to the HF1 fault.

3.1.1. Ground Penetrating Radar survey and trench investigationGround Penetrating Radar (GPR) profile was acquired across

Hajipur fault (HF2) to confirm the near sub-surface faulting (Fig. 3a).A 200 MHz antenna with SIR 3000 GSSI system was used to collect22 m long GPR profile. To get better cross-sectional view of the faultgeometry 3D data with 22 m×10 m grid was collected (Fig. 5a).Prominent inclined georadar reflections were identified between 0 mand 12 m horizontal marker (Fig. 5a). The inclined reflections mark alow-angle thrust fault strand with fault plane dipping towards NE.This clearly suggests that even this part of the Himalayan front alongHFT has been ruptured during historic past as observed in otherlocations from paloeseismic investigations (Lavé et al., 2005; Malikand Nakata, 2003; Kumar et al., 2006; Malik et al., 2008).

Along with the GPR survey trench investigation was carried out tofinally confirm the near surface displacement, to know the pattern ofdeformation/faulting and occurrence of most recent event (Fig. 3a). A16 m long, 1 to 3 m deep and 4 to 5 m wide NE–SW trench wasexcavated across HF2 (Fig. 5b–d). The height of the SW facing scarpvaries from 5 to 6 m. Five sedimentary units a — older to f — youngerwere identified. Units a and b are the gravel units, about 3.0 m thickcomprise rounded to sub-rounded poorly sorted cobble-pebble,weakly stratified fining upwards sequences with sandy matrix. Unita is marked by coarse clasts and b mainly contains pebble clasts.These units represent deposition by a coarser bed-load stream underchannel-fill environment. Unit c consists of medium to fine sand

Table 1Optically-stimulated luminescence ages from trench excavated across HF2 — Hajipur fault along Himalayan Frontal Thrust, NW Himalaya.

Sedimentary units in trench Samplea Grain size De (Gy) U ppm Th ppm K (%) Dose Rate (Gy/Ka) Age (ka)

Unit e HT-1 Course grain 1.75±0.3 4.93±0.94 7.62±3.1 1.7±0.04 3.2±0.3 0.55±0.1(150±30 µm)

Unit d HT-4 Course grain 4.3±0.1 3.63±0.75 6.91±2.49 1.3±0.04 2.46±0.3 1.75±0.2(180±30 µm)

Unit d HT-8 Course grain 5.11±0.1 3.5±0.76 8.42±2.6 1.6±0.04 2.8±0.3 1.8±0.2(180±30 µm)

Unit d HT-10 Course grain 4.27±0.1 3.47±0.72 7.79±2.47 1.3±0.04 2.5±0.3 1.7±0.2(180±30 µm)

†‡Equivalent dose (De) computed using minimum plus two sigma, water content assumed to be 10%, cosmic ray dose 150 micro gray per year. Dating was carried out at PhysicalResearch Laboratory, Ahmedabad, India.

a Refer trench section to Fig. 5d for sample location.

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(∼0.5 m) with scattered gravel (pebble) clasts overlying the unit brepresents colluvial wedge. Unit d is a thick (∼1.5 m) medium tocoarse sandy unit capping the units b and c. Its lower part comprisesmore clayey silt package, whereas, medium to coarse sand along withsparsely scattered gravel clasts in the middle and upper portions. Thisunit marks deposition under overbank deposition. The contactbetween the gravel unit b and overlying unit d is sharp and irregular.The unit e made up of medium to coarse sand with scattered gravelclasts caps the units b and d. This unit shows abundant scatteredgravels as compared to the underlying unit d. The contact is irregular–erosive suggestive of deposition in channel fill environment. Finally,the sequence is capped by loose sandy material with few gravel clastsunit f, suggests artificial fill.

Displacement has occurred along NE dipping thrust faults— F1, F2, F3and F4. Thedip of F1 varies from∼24° at a depth in the northeast of trenchand graded to ∼8° to almost horizontal in the southwest near surface,whereas, F2 and F3 shows fault dip from 24° to 15°, the fault F4 showsslightly higher angle of about∼45°. F1hasdisplacedunitsb anddbyabout5 m, and F2 and F3 have displaced units a, b, c and d. Near surfacedisplacement of these units ranges from 0.5 m to 0.75 m. Looking to thepattern of vertical stacking of the gravel clasts in units a and b it issuggested that more than one events have occurred along the HF2. F1marks the main fault with maximum displacement and other are thesubordinate faults. The deformation pattern also indicates thatmajor partof the deformation has been consumed by folding.

OSL (optical stimulated luminescence) ages obtained from foursamples from the northwall of trench succession range from 1.8±0.6 ka to 0.55±0.1 ka (Table 1). Unit d yielded age of 1.7 to 1.8 ka,and the overlying unit e gave an age of 0.5 ka (Fig. 5d). Taking intoconsideration pattern of displacement and stratigraphic relationshipour preliminary interpretation suggests at least two events haveoccurred along the HFT in this region with manifestation of surfacefaulting along HF2. The Event-I occurred before the deposition of unitc and d, and after the deposition of unit b. During Event-I gravel unit(a and b) was displaced along F1 and its subordinate faults. Thecolluvial wedge (unit c) deposited after this event only remainedpreserved in the upper portion of the scarp. Later the depositionaltook place under overbank environment, could be attributed toshifting of Beas River to its present position due to the lateralpropagation of the HF2. The latest Event-II occurred after thedeposition of unit d and before the deposition of unit e, i.e. between1.7 ka and 0.5 ka.

3.2. Active fault along HFT (forelimb) in central part of Janauri anticline

Active fault traces facing the Indo-Gangetic Plain were delineatedbetween Jaijon and Bhudia-Pau villages in the central portion of Janaurianticline (Fig. 6a and in Fig. 2a refer profile a).Whereas, further southeastno prominent traces were observed other than the topography revealingwarped surfaces and sharp linear fronts. These active faults extend withvariable length ranging from 1 to 4 km (Fig. 6a). Themost distinct NNW–

SSE trending scarp was identified near Bhatpur village (Fig. 6a, b, d, andrefer profile b in Fig. 2a). The fault trace extends for about 4 km in length,has displaced the alluvial fan surface comprising well-rounded pebble-cobble debris deposits in the proximal part. The vertically displaced fansurface is marked by 15 to 20 m high SW facing scarp (Fig. 6b and d). Thestreams crossing the active front exhibits deeply entrenched narrowchannels, and formation of paired terraces close to the front (Fig. 6a–d).Two set of paired terraces were observed around Bhatpur (Fig. 6b).Further north near Jaijon village Panjolanwala Khad (Khad=stream)showvery similar evidence of paired terraces (Figs. 6a, 7a andb). Here thefault has displaced the fan surface giving rise to 15 to 18 mhigh SW facingscarp, most prominent was observed along the left bank. Along the leftbank in the upstream side close to the front the river has incised thechannel-fill deposits (late Pleistocene-Holocene age e.g. Valdiya, 2003;Malik and Mohanty, 2007) along with the underlying southerly dippingUpper Siwalik succession giving rise to strath terrace. Total incision ofabout 10 to 12 mwas observed (T1-surface),which includes the bed-rockincision 8 to 9 m along with the overlying 2 to 3 m thick late Quaternarychannel-fill deposits (Fig. 7c). The T2-surfacewas about 5 to 6 m from thetop of the T1-surface, giving a cumulative incision of about 15 to 18m(Fig. 7a and c).

3.3. Active fault along backlimb in the central of Janauri anticline

The front along the backlimb of the Janauri anticline marked byback-thrust provides excellent example of slip-partitioning along inthe sub-Himalayan zone. The north dipping thrust has displaced thefluvial terraces aswell as coalesced alluvial fan surfaces (Figs. 2a, b, 8a–e). Most prominent fault traces trending NNW–SSE were observedbetween Palata and Bathu villages (Fig. 8a–e, and refer profile c inFig. 2a). Two parallel trace of active fault scarps were noticed nearPalata and Supalwan village (Fig. 8a, b, e and f). These faults extend forabout 2 to 2.5 km, have displaced the alluvial fan surface resulting inNE facing scarps (Fig. 8a, b and e). The alluvial fan surface is seendisplaced in proximal as well as in the distal end parts. Two distinctlevels (L1 and L2) of uplifted surfaces were observed along the faultscarps with height ranging from 8 to 10 m (Fig. 8b, e and f). Thestreams crossing the thrust-front are marked by narrow deep incisedchannels (Fig. 8b). Another prominent fault scarps were observedaround Bathri village (Fig. 8a, c, d and g). Here two parallel fault scarptraces of about 2 to 4 km in length, trending NNW–SSE have displacedthe fluvial surface resulting in formation of NE facing scarps ranging inheight from 12 to 15 m (Fig. 8c and g). Displacements along thesefaults have resulted into two level uplifted surfaces (L1 and L2) (Fig. 8aand g). Back-tilting was noticed at one location southwest of Bathri(Fig. 8c and refer profile d in Fig. 2a). This fluvial terrace is a part of theflat-uplifted surface with thick gravel deposit, suggestive of olderfloodplain of the paleo-Sutlej River, which flowed through this area inthe past. Further northwest distinct convex slope along the edge of thefront was noticed between Bathu and Mankot with prominent scarparound Taliwal (Fig. 8a, h). We interpret this slope as a flexural or

Fig. 6. (a) Contour map showing distinct topographic variations in the central part along the forelimb of Janauri anticline, between Bhudia Pau and Lalwan village. Discontinuous traces of active faults were identified around Bhatpur, Jaijon andLalwan villages, (b) Stereo-pair of CORONA photo showing occurrence of fault scarp around Bhatpur (refer to Fig. 6a for location). The NW–SE striking scarp is well marked by uplifted paired-terrace close to the front. The fault scarp extends forabout 4 km along the strike, height of the scarp ranges from 15 to 20 m. The streams crossing the front are marked by deeply incised narrow valleys, (c) Geomorphic map showingmajor landforms in the area. Paired terraces are seen along thefrontal part. T1— younger terrace, T2— older terrace. AF—marks the active alluvial fan surface, and (d) View of fault scarp at Bhatpur village. Faulting has displaced proximal part of the alluvial fan surface giving rise to SW facing scarp (15 to20 m). Dotted circle shows the person standing at base of the scarp with 1.5 m height. Fault trace is marked by white arrow.

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Fig. 7. (a) Stereo-pair of the area around Jaijon village along the frontal part of Janauri anticline (refer to Fig. 6a for location). Fault trace is shown by arrows. The occurrence of terraces and high degree of incision in the alluvial fanmaterial closeto the front suggests displacement along the active fault. The fault trace further NW is marked by sharp front and prominent geomorphic boundary between the hill range and Indo-Gangetic plain. The fault extends for about 1 to 1.5 km, (b)Geomorphic sketch prepared from the CORONA photo interpretation showing major landforms. Paired terraces are noticed along the frontal part along the HFT. T1 — younger terrace and T2 — older terrace. Active fault trace is marked byarrows, and (c) Incised section along the left bank of Panjolonwala Khad shows occurrence of strath terrace (T1) and valley fill terrace (T2). The T1 terrace cliffy bank is about 12 m, where river has incised about 2–3 m of fluvial deposits and8 to 9 m of Upper Siwalik succession (bedrock). White broken line show the bounding surface of the channel-fill troughs with respect to the underlying Upper Siwalik succession. Total incision of T1 and T2 is about 15–18 m.

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Fig. 8. (a) Contour map of the area along the back-limb in the central part of the Janauri anticline showing prominent traces of active fault scarps between Palata and Supalwan village, and around Bathari and Bathu. Distinct warping wasobserved near Bathu village and further up toMankot, (b) Stereo-pair of the area around Palata and Supalwan village. Two active fault traces with NE facing scarps aremarked by arrows, (c) Stereo-pair of the area around Bathri village showingtraces active faults displacing the fluvial surface giving rise to NE facing fault scarps (refer Fig. 6a for location). (d) View of NNW–SSE striking fault scarp near Bathri village, (e) View of displaced fan surface in the distal part near Supalwanvillage, (f) Geomorphic map showing displaced alluvial fan surfaces along the Back Thrust. Fan surface is displaced along two fault parallel traces resulting in two northeast facing scarps. L1 and L2 represents the two level of surface, (g) Fluvialsurface, part of flat-uplifted surface has been displaced along two parallel fault traces giving rise to northeast facing scarps. L1 and L2 represent the two level of surface. (h) stereo-pair of the area around Taliwal village showing warping andactive fault scarp trace (marked by arrows). T1 — younger terrace and T2 — older terrace.

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Fig. 8 (continued).

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warping scarp caused by thrust faulting beneath the scarp. Theoccurrence of two parallel traces of active fault along the front areinterpreted as the branching out imbricated faults, and the flexurenorthwest to Bathu probably points toward the change in dip of thefault plane from high to low along the strike of the fault. Such variablemanifestation of the deformation on the surface is common along thefold-and-thrust belt in Himalaya (Malik and Mathew, 2005).

3.4. Uplift in Piedmont Zone along the southeastern portion of Janaurianticline

The Piedmont Zone is a part of the Indo-Gangetic Plain made up ofcoalesced alluvial fan deposits, drained by the streams originating fromthe forelimb side of the Janauri anticline, finally joining the higher ordermain channel of Sutlej River (Figs. 1a, 2a–b). Younger hill range wasobserved in the piedmont zone around southeastern end of the Janauri

anticline formedas a result ofmovements alongFrontal Piedmont Thrust(FPT). The hill range trending NNW–SSE extends laterally for about 7 to8 km between Rel Majra and Mauhar (Figs. 2a–b, 9a–b). It is marked bygullied surface, relatively less dissected compare to the Janauri anticline.It extends in E–W direction for about 3 to 4.5 km (Figs. 2a and 9a).The height of the ridges ranges from 10 to 20 m. Along the strike theheight of the range is variable, at places near Retwal village the range ismarked by higher elevation (Fig. 9b), whereas aroundMauhar village itreduces and die out further NW. The streams flowing across this rangeexhibitswell developed terraces andat places channel ismarkedbydeepincision along the course (Fig. 9a–b). The uplifted piedmont sedimentsand evolution of this growing young hill range is a result of southwardpropagation of tectonic activity and movements along FPT whichrepresents an emergent imbricated thrust branching out from themain HFT system (Figs. 2a–b, 9a–b). Similar evidence of uplift in thepiedmont zone has been observed around the foothill zone of DehraDun

Fig. 9. (a) CORONA photo showing the uplift in the piedmont zone due to movement along Frontal Piedmont Thrust (FPT). The uplifted gullied surface extends for about 7 to 8 kmbetween Rel Majra and Mauhar village, and (b) A view of active fault scarp in the piedmont zone near Retwal village along FPT (refer the topographic profile CC` in Fig. 1d).

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(Thakur, 2004). These observations provide support to the model thatlarge-to-great earthquakes originated in the locked part of thedetachment and propagated southward to the range front, producingsurface–ruptures, fault scarps and uplifts in the Gangetic Plain (Thakur,2004).

4. Discussion

The phenomenon of fault related fold growth, lateral propagation andfault segmentation-linkage inmany tectonically active regionhave playedpivotal role in shaping the landscape (e.g. Delcaillau et al., 1998; BurbankandAnderson, 2001; Davis et al., 2005; Be´s de Berc et al., 2005;Malik andMohanty, 2007), and could be considered as a source for futureearthquakes. Several experimental as well as field based studies fromnormal faulting environment have given remarkable understandingtowards the phenomenon of fault-growth, fault segmentation andsegment linkage, which in turn also helped in understanding the scalingrelationship between the displacement (D) on fault and length (L) of thefault (e.g. Cartwright et al., 1995;Walsh et al., 2002). In recent years somestudies have proved that the lateral propagation of faulting-and-folding,fault-growth and segment linkage is also most commonly observedphenomenon in the active thrust-and-fold belt region (e.g. Mueller andTalling, 1997; Delcaillau et al., 1998; Burbank et al., 1999; Burbank andAnderson, 2001; Champel et al., 2002; Be´s de Berc et al., 2005;Davis et al.,2005; Delcaillau et al., 2006; Malik and Mohanty, 2007; Simoes et al.,

2007). In this phenomenon it has been suggested that (1) the tectonicactivity (faulting) initiates at the location above the pre-existing faultsystem with a nucleation close to the centre of each fault, (2) as dis-placement occurs during major earthquake - fault grows, propagateslaterally by acquiresmore length, and (3) the propagating fault segmentseither overlap or get linked-up giving rise to one single large segment(Walsh et al., 2002; Champel et al., 2002; Davis et al., 2005).

The new active fault traces identified along the northern, centraland southern portion of the Janauri anticline provided ideal oppor-tunity to understand the pattern of ongoing tectonic deformation inthe frontal part of the Himalayan arc. The active fault distribution andassociated geomorphic features revealed that the evolution of Janaurianticline is not only related to one single fault segment, but more thanone fault segments were responsible for its development (Figs. 2a–band 10). The occurrence of fault scarps along the forelimb and back-limb of the Janauri anticline suggests that the slip accommodated inthe frontal part along the HFT system is partitioned between themain HFT and associated back-thrust (Figs. 1–8). The prominent faultscarps extending in length up to 4 km around Bhatpur, and 1 to 2 kmaround Jaijon and Lalwan along the forelimb suggests that Himalayanfront had ruptured in the past (Figs. 6a–d and 7a–c). The fault scarpsheights up to 20 to 25 m and occurrence of paired alluvial-fill as wellas strath terraces (Figs. 6a and 7a–c) are suggestive of cumulativeuplift and ongoing long-term deformation along the fault. Similarevidences of occurrence of fault scarp traces along the backlimb side

Fig. 10. (a) Stage I: Fault related fold growth initiated along the smaller segments along NWHimalayan frontal viz. CS — the Chandigarh anticline Segment; JS1 — the southern Janaurisegment; and JS2 — the northern Janauri segment. Gaps between the growing folds allowedthe rivers to flow through, (b) Stage II: The lateral propagation of the growing folds resultedinto linkage of JS1 and JS2 segments. Uplift of the linked segment caused disruption anddeflection of Sutlej River, and (c) Stage III: Due to sub-surface structural asperity the JS1segment does not linked up with the CS segment. The tectonic activity propagated towardsforelandalongnewlydeveloped—FrontalPiedmontThrust (FPT).Due tonostructural asperityin the northwestern end the tectonic activity was transferred and taken-up by two parallelto sub-parallel young active faults (Hajipur Fault) branched from the main JS2 segment. Thelateral propagation and movements along HF1 and HF2 resulted into shift of the Beas River.

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around Palata, Bathu and Bathri (Fig. 8a–g) are indicative of parti-tioning of slip from themain Himalayan Frontal Thrust (HFT). Also thescarp heights ranging from 8 to 25 m represent the cumulative uplift

and ongoing deformation. Along the backlimb side we identifiedmorethan one line of fault scarp traces. The occurrence of these parallel tosub-parallel fault scarp traces suggest propagation of tectonic activitytowards hinterland side in the Soan Dun, which represent imbricatedthrusts. It is suggested that the shortening in the frontal part is ab-sorbed by the main HFT and back thrust (BT). In the southern portionof the Janauri anticline the uplifted piedmont zone marked by dis-sected landform (Fig. 9a, b) suggests that the tectonic activity haspropagated towards foreland along the newly developed range frontregistering movement along Frontal Piedmont Thrust (FPT). TheFPT represents an imbricated emergent thrust that belongs to theHFT system. Similar phenomenon of uplift has been also noticed inthe region west of the study area from the piedmont zone of DehraDun hills (Thakur, 2004). Also, the most prominent two active faulttraces — “Hajipur fault” (HF1 and HF2) along the northern fringe ofJanauri anticline provided an excellent example of lateral propagationof faulting along HFT and relation of fault and associated fold growth(Figs. 2a and 3a). The movements along these faults are well repre-sented on the surface in form of SW facing fault scarps formed due tovertically displaced floodplain deposits of Beas River (Figs. 2b, 3a and4). Also the gradual reduction of the height of the scarp in northwestclearly points towards northwestward propagation of these faults,which forced Beas River to shift towards northwest forming huge ‘U’shape turn (Figs. 2b, 3a and 4). An alternative interpretation could bethat the Beas River during the period of tectonic movements i.e.,lateral propagation of the HF1 and HF2 was not capable enough to cutthrough the uplift along these active faults, and had low energyconditions causing lateral shifting-deflection to its present position.3D GPR profile further helped us in identifying the evidence of low-angle fault (thrust fault) dipping NE along HF2 (Fig. 5). This was alsoconfirmed from the trench investigations across HF2, which revealedclear displacement along low-angle thrust faults. Preliminary inter-pretation suggests at least two events have occurred during recenthistoric past, with the latest one (Event II) during 1.7 to 0.5 karegistering displacement of more than 3 m during one single event.The historic record from the surrounding area suggests occurrence ofmajor earthquake during 1555 AD Kashmir event and the paleoseis-mic studies from the Chandigarh region located about 150 km south-east of the study area suggests evidence of occurrence of largemagnitude event during 1400–1500 AD (Malik et al., 2008). Consid-ering the above information it is quite possible that the latest event(Event II) in our trench might have occurred during 1500 AD (?).

The only present convergence rate available from this region is fromthe recent GPS measurements collected during the period from 1995 to2000 (Banerjee and Bürgmann, 2002). The rate of shortening observedacross 100 km long transect between the frontal Himalayan zone (sub-Himalaya) and the Higher Himalaya was 14±1 mm/yr, also based onrestoration of balanced geological cross-sections similar rate of 14±2mm/yr was deduced across the Kangra reentrant for 140 km longtransect (Powers et al., 1998). It hasbeen suggested that at presentHFT islocked andhave showednomovement during the period of observation,and the major portion of the slip is accommodated by the faults to thenorth of sub-Himalayan foothill zone (Banerjee and Bürgmann, 2002;Malik and Mohanty, 2007). The present study along the frontal zonesuggests that HFT had observed slip during recent historic past asindicated from the trenching data and traces of active fault scarps.

The 100 km long Janauri anticline ridge represents a linkedsegment formed due to inter-linking of two fault segments; thelinked segment marked by flat-uplifted surface in the central portionrepresents the paleo-water gap of the Sutlej River (Malik andMohanty, 2007). Taking into consideration the evidences of activefaults along Janauri anticline and models of lateral propagation offaults and segment linkage suggested by Malik and Mohanty (2007)and Delcaillau et al. (2006), an attempt has been made to reconstructthe phases of evolution of Janauri anticline along the frontal zone(Figs. 2a–b and10a–c). Stage I: Smaller segments alongNWHimalayan

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frontal viz. CS — the Chandigarh anticline segment; JS1 — the southernJanauri segment; and JS2 — the northern Janauri segment, startedgrowing (Fig. 10a). The growing folds allowed the rivers toflow throughthe gaps available between them. Stage II: The lateral propagation of thegrowing fault related fold resulted into linkage of JS1 and JS2 segments.The linked portion experienced rapid uplift, causing upliftment of SutlejRiver bed along with disruption and deflection Sutlej River (Malik andMohanty, 2007) (Fig. 10b). The high (rapid) degree of activity in thelinked area is well manifested by the flat uplifted surface in the centralportion of the Janauri anticline (Figs. 1 and 2). During this stage thesoutheastern end of the JS1 segment has not been linked-up with thenorthwestern end of the CS. Stage III: It is suggested that due to sub-surface geological asperities the tectonic activity along the Himalayanfront was transferred further south towards the foreland along thenewly developed Frontal Piedmont Thrust (FPT) (Figs. 1, 2, 8 and10c). Whereas, probably due to no presence structural asperity onthe northwestern end of the Janauri anticline resulted into furthernorthwest propagation of fault related fold (Figs. 2, 3 and 10c). Thenorthwestward propagation of activity in this part was transferredand taken-up by two parallel to sub-parallel young active faultsbranched from the main JS2 (Figs. 4a, 10c). The lateral propagationand movements along these newly identified active faults HF1 and HF2(Hajipur fault) resulted into uplift of the floodplain of Beas River as wellas responsible for the northward shift (Figs. 3, 4a and 10c).

The recent 2005 event triggered along earlier identified Tanda activefault (Nakata et al., 1991), has pointed towards the importance of activefault identification in Himalayan domain where very few studies arefocused for active fault mapping. The evidence of active fault distributionalong the Janauri anticline, lateral propagation of fault related folding,linkage of smaller segments giving rise to one single large segment anddiversion of drainage suggests that tectonic activity not only haveimplications to the landscape evolution but also towards the potentialityof producing largemagnitude earthquake in future in this region. It is alsosuggested that the future rupture along the Hajipur fault will result intofurther propagation of the fault towards northwest. Our finding will behelpful in further understanding the ongoing deformation in Himalayanfrontal zone andwill form base for detailed paleoseismic investigations inthe region. Also several newly identified active fault traces along theJanauri anticline will be helpful in seismic hazard assessment of areasmarked by increasing population growth in the foothills.

5. Conclusions

The major findings of the present study are as follows:

1) The 100 km long NNW-SSE striking frontal foreland fold— the Janaurianticline is a product of a linked-up segment form due to inter-linkingof two segments JS1 and JS2.

2) Occurrence of active fault traces along the forelimb and backlimbof Janauri anticline in the central portion and less dissected topo-graphy of the flat uplifted surface (paleo-water gap of Sutlej River)suggests partition of slip along the HFT and associated back-thrust inthe frontal zone and probable region of rapid uplift.

3) Development of Frontal Piedmont Thrust (FPT) suggests propaga-tion of tectonic activity towards foreland.

4) The lateral propagation and movements along HF1 and HF2 (Hajipurfault) are attributed to the uplift of the floodplain aswell as northwardshift of Beas River.

5) GPR survey confirmed the near sub-surface deformation anddisplacement of young alluvial deposits along a thrust fault.

6) Trench excavated across HF2 indicates occurrence of at least twoearthquake and associated surface rupture during recent historic past,with the latest one occurred around 0.5 to 1.7 ka. Considering thehistoric and paleoseismic records from the surrounding area it issuggested that the latest event (Event II) occurred during 1500 AD (?)with a rupture length extending for more than 150 km.

Acknowledgements

JNM pays his due respect and gratitude to Prof. Nakata, HiroshimaUniversity, Japan for constant encouragement and support to undertakethis research along Himalaya. Financial support provided by Ministry ofEarth Sciences (MoES) andDepartment of Science and Technology (DST),New Delhi is duly acknowledged. Authors are thankful to AshutoshKumar, PrashantMishra andArvind Pandey for their help.We are gratefulto Ashutosh Kumar, both the anonymous referees for providing valuablecomments and suggestions, which helped us in improving the manu-script.Weare also grateful TheEditor for keepingbelief inus and for give achance to revise the manuscript.

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