28 Renard
Transcript of 28 Renard
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6 0
T R D I T I O N S O F S P I R I T U L
G U I D N C E
I s lam ic T rad i t i on o f Sp ir itua l G u ida nce I I
N A N E A R L I E R L O OK a t t h e I s l a m i c tr a d i t i o n , P a u l J a c k s o n s k e t c h e d
o u t t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f t h e t h e o r y a n d p r a c t i c e o f s p i ri tu a l g u i d a n c e .
A g a i n s t t h a t b a c k d r o p h e t h e n t r e a t e d a t s o m e w h a t g r e a t e r l e n g th t h e
lif e a n d w o r k s o f S h a r a f u d d i n M a n e r i , o n e o f t h e m a j o r f i g u re s i n t h e
h i s t o r y o f S o u t h A s i a n I s l a m i c s p i r i tu a l i ty .
T o p r o v i d e a s li g h tl y d i f fe r e n t p e r s p e c t i v e o n t h is v a s t s u b j e c t, I p r o p o s e
t o g i v e a b r i e f s u r v e y o f s o m e o f t h e p r i n c i p a l k i n d s o f
sour es
o f t h e
t r a d it io n a n d o f p r o m i n e n t
themes
i n I s l a m i c s p i r i t u a l g u i d a n c e , a n d t h e n
t a k e a c l o se r lo o k a t a c o n t e m p o r a r y o f M a n e r i s f r o m t h e o p p o s it e
( w e s te r n ) e n d o f t h e m e d i e v a l I sl a m i c w o r l d . I b n A b b a d o f R o n d a a ls o
l i v e d i n t h e f o u r t e e n t h c e n t u r y ( 1 3 3 0 - 9 0 ) a n d w r o t e i m p o r t a n t l e t t e r s o f
s p i ri tu a l d i r e c ti o n . B u t u n l i k e M a n e r i , I b n A b b a d w a s b o r n in S p a i n
a n d l i v e d m o s t o f h is lif e in M o r o c c o , w r o t e h i s l e tt e rs i n A r a b i c r a t h e r
t h a n i n P e r s ia n , a n d b e l o n g e d t o a r e li gi o us o r d e r w h o s e c h a r i s m
c o n t r i b u te d t o w a r d s t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f a k i n d o f l a y s p i ri tu a l i ty .
A c r o ss th e le n g th a n d b r e a d t h o f M a n e r i a n d I b n A b b a d s w o rl d,
M u s l i m s p i ri tu a l w r i t e r s d e v e l o p e d t h e t r a d i t i o n o f s p i ri tu a l g u i d a n c e
t h r o u g h a v a r i e ty o f l i te r a r y f o r m s . M a n y v a r i a t io n s o n t h e t h e m e o c c u r
i n s u c h i n d i r e c t t y p e s o f s p i r i t u a l c o u n s e l a s o n e f i n d s i n t h e s a p i e n t i a l
a n e c d o t e s o f P e r s i a n s t o ry t e ll e r s a n d m y s t i c a l p o e t s , o r i n o c c a s io n a l
e x e g e t i c a l w o r k s w h e r e a t e x t p r o m p t s t h e i n t e r p r e t e r t o e x p o u n d o n
s o m e t e c h n i c a l t e r m o f p a r t i c u l a r s ig n i fi c an c e i n I s l a m i c s p ir i tu a l it y . I t
w i ll su i t o u r p u r p o s e h e r e t o m e n t i o n o n l y f o u r t y p e s o f l i te r a t u r e :
m a n u a l s , c o n v e r s a t i o n s o f t h e s h a y k h s , t r ea t is e s o n p r o p e r c o n d u c t a n d
l e t te r s o f s p i r i t u a l d i r e c t i o n .
F r o m a r o u n d th e te n t h c e n t u ry , c o m p e n d i a o r m a n u a l s o n th e m a j o r
t h e m e s a n d r e q u i r e m e n t s o f t h e S u fi P a t h ( th e m y s t i ca l d i m e n s i o n o f
I s l a m , u n d e r s t o o d i n a g e n e r a l w a y ) b e g a n t o a p p e a r . T h e s e o f te n l e n g t h y
t r e a t i s e s f u n c t i o n e d p a r t l y a s b i o g r a p h i c a l d i c t i o n a r i e s , m a n y i n c l u d i n g
e x p li ci tl y a W h o s W h o A m o n g S u f i s s e g m e n t , a n d p a r t l y as l ex ic a o f
t h e t e c h ni c al t e r m i n o l o g y a n d t h e o r y r e q u i s it e f o r a n a d e q u a t e u n d e r s t a n d -
i n g o f t h e P a t h . S o m e a l s o in c l u d e d s e c t io n s s p e c i fi c a ll y d e v o t e d t o
a d v i s in g th e n o v i c e o r s e e k e r a s t o c o n d u c t e x p e c t e d o f h i m i n r e la t io n
t o t h e s p i r i tu a l g u i d e ( t h e s h a y k h ) . 1
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TRADITIONS OF SPIRITUAL GUIDANCE 61
A second literary genre developed from collections of discourses and
obiter dicta of the more famous and revered guides. Such sayings recorded
by disciples (a type known as malfuz, to which Paul Jackson referred in
his discussion of Maneri ), had in most instances the added au thority of
directives or advice from one s own shaykh or a majo r figure in one s
own religious order. In any case, the form intentionally preserved the
exemplary reflections of some shaykh for the emulation of seekers,
although the content rarely followed the organizational structure of a
formal treatise. 2
Comb inin g the more direct authority of a particular guide s instructions
to a specific group of seekers along with the order of topics found in the
treatise or manual form, spiritual writers developed a third genre. Books
of
Adab
contain the shaykh s directives on a variety of matters of
external behaviour, such as garb, conversation, eating, travelling and
companionship. Even though these generally small documents emphasize
especially the seeker s ou tward depor tment , they do so in the belief that
the outer and the inner condition are inseparable: behaviour both
expresses one s attitude and helps to mould and t ransform one interiorly
by subtly modifying on e s inner disposition. 3
Still more direct and more personal, correspondence from a shaykh to
a particular seeker constitutes the last important form of spiritual guid-
ance. In their letters the guides address, of course, the more predictable
generic issues, such as the use of various traditional methods of prayer,
spirkual reading, fasting and pilgrimage. Beyond that, however, this
more personal vehicle for guidance affords us a glimpse into numerous
individual matters of conscience and religious experience. Topics range
from scruples over the acceptance of stipends for instructing children in
the faith, to confusion over the absence of sensible consolation while
reciting scripture, to the perenn ial question of how to find a suitable
spiritual director. 4
Themes in Islamic spiritual guidance
Muslim spiritual writers regard the need of a spiritual guide as of
paramoun t importance, analogous to humani ty s need of a prophet to
reveal God s word. Even Moses had to apprentice to his father-in-law
(Shu ayb, a prophet in Islamic tradition) as preparation for encountering
God. The ordinary wayfarer faces far too many perils on the path to
hazard the jou rney alone. On the other hand, one cannot simply designate
one s own shaykh; God grants guidance as a gift.
Qualifications of the guide form a second theme. Virtually every
document on spiritual guidance mentions these in greater or lesser detail.
Najm ad-Din Daya Razi (d. 1256) wrote one of the more extensive
treatises on the subject. His
Path of G od s bondsmen,
based in part on
similar work by earlier writers, lists the following attributes of the
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6 2 T R A D I T I O N S O F S P I R I T U A L G U I D A N C E
a u t h e n t i c g u i d e : s e r v i t u d e t o G o d a l o n e , r e c e p t i o n o f t r u t h d i r e c tl y f r o m
G o d , p r i v il e g e d a c ce s s t o G o d s m e r c y , a h e a r t p u r i f ie d o f a ll n o n - d i v i n e
f o r m s o f k n o w l e d g e , r e b i r th i n to k n o w l e d g e o f t h e e s se n c e o f G o d s
p r e s e n c e . O t h e r a t t r i b u t e s t h a t f o l l o w a r e c o r r e c t b e li e f, i n t e l li g e n c e ,
l ib e r a li ty , c o u r a g e , c h a s ti ty , l o f ty a s p ir a t io n , c o m p a s s i o n , f o r b e a r a n c e ,
f o r g i v e n e s s , s w e e t t e m p e r , s e lf le s sn e ss , c o n t e n t m e n t w i t h o n e s l o t, d i g -
n i t y , t r a n q u i l l i t y , s t e a d f a st n e s s a n d a p r e s e n c e w o r t h y o f r e v e r e n c e , a
R a z i s s u b s e q u e n t c h a p t e r o u t l in e s t h e t h i r d t h e m e , t h a t o f t h e b e h a v -
i o u r adab ) r e q u i r e d o f t h e s e e k e r o r n o v i c e . I n o r d e r t o f a n th e s p a r k
G o d s t ri k e s f r o m f l in t w i t h i n th e i n d i v i d u a l , t h e s e e k er m u s t w i l li n g ly
s u b m i t to th e t u t e la g e o f t h e g u i d e . R a z i e n u m e r a t e s t w e n t y e ss e n ti al
q u a li ti es : r e p e n t a n c e , r e n u n c i a t i o n , a b a n d o n m e n t o f f a m i ly t ie s, p r o p e r
b e li ef , f e a r o f G o d , p a t i e n c e , s t r u g g l e a g a i n s t t h e l o w e r s e lf ( t h e g r e a t e r
s t r u g g l e Uihad] a s c o m p a r e d t o s t r u g g l e a g a i n s t e x t e r n a l f o e s ) , c o u r a g e ,
r e a d i n e s s t o sa c ri fi ce , c h i v a l r o u s n e s s , s i n c e r i ty , k n o w l e d g e , a c t i v e s e a r c h -
i n g , w i l li n g n e s s t o s u f f e r r e p r o a c h w i t h o u t g i v i n g o c c a s i o n f o r it , i n te ll i-
g e n c e , e v e n d i s p o s i t i o n , s u b m i s s io n t o t h e s h a y k h a s a c o r p s e in t h e
h a n d s o f t h e c o rp s e w a s h e r , a n d u t t e r a b a n d o n m e n t t o G o d . O f c o u r se ,
R a z i d o e s n o t e x p e c t s u c h lo f ty a c c o m p l i s h m e n t o f a b e g i n n e r ; o n l y a n
a w a r e n e s s t h a t t h e p a t h m a k e s s e v e r e d e m a n d s . 6
G i v e n a g u i d e a n d a s ee k e r c a p a b l e o f h i g h a s p i r a ti o n , t h e r e l a ti o n s h i p
o f s p ir i t u a l g u i d a n c e m a y a d v a n c e t o t h e t a s k o f a ss e ss in g t h e s e e k e r s
i n n er n e e ds a n d n a m i n g G o d s m a n n e r o f d e a li n g w i th t h is u n i q u e
i n d i v id u a l . O n e m i g h t c h a r a c t e r i z e t h e e s se n c e o f t h e r e la t i o n s h ip i n
t e r m s o f o n e o v e r a r c h i n g c o n c e r n a n d f o u r s u b o r d i n a t e t h e m e s , a n d s til l
s to p j u s t s h o r t o f u n h e l p f u l e n t a n g l e m e n t i n t h e w o n d e r f u l l y c o m p l e x a n d
c e n t u r i e s- o l d u n f o l d i n g o f I s l a m i c s p i ri tu a l a n t h r o p o l o g y . A b o v e a ll t h e
s ee ke r m u s t a p p re c ia te h u m a n i t y s a b so lu t e n e e d o f G o d a n d G o d s
a b s o l u t e w i l l i n g n e s s t o f i l l t h a t n e e d b y p r o v i d i n g a l l n e c e s s i t i e s f o r t h e
j o u r n e y . H o w e v e r , n o t al l p r o v i s i o n s a v a i la b l e w i ll p r o v e e q u a l ly b e n e -
f ic ia l f o r a g i v e n i n d i v i d u a l ; s o m e t h e s e e k e r m u s t l e a r n t o r e je c t s o a s t o
m o v e o n .
W i t h i n t h a t c o n t e x t , t h e a n a l y s is o f t h e i n t e r i o r lif e t u r n s u p o n a
d i s c e r n m e n t o f f o u r as p ec ts o f t h e in n e r p r o v i s i o n s t h a t p r e s e n t t h e m -
s elv e s. T h e s h a y k h h el p s t h e s e e k e r t h r o u g h a h e i g h t e n e d a w a r e n e s s o f
t h e i m m e d i a t e s o u r c e , d u r a t i o n , c o n t e n t a n d a f fe c ti v e t o n e o f t h e m o r e
c r it ic a l p r o v i s i o n s t h a t t a k e t h e f o r m o f m o v e m e n t s o f s o u l .
A n e g a t i v e p s y c h i c fo r c e 7 i m p l a n t e d a t c r e a t i o n r e n d e r s t h e p r o c e s s
e x c e e d i n g l y d i ff ic u l t: th e l o w e r s e l f o f e a c h p e r s o n t h r e a t e n s c o n s t a n t l y t o
r o l l t h e w a t e r s f o r i t s o w n s e l f i s h e n d s a n d t o i n s u r e t h a t i t n e e d n o t s t i r
f r o m its b e d o f t o r p o r . T h o u g h M u s l i m w r i t e rs d i f fe r a s t o t h e p r ec i se
e n u m e r a t i o n o f t h e s o u r c e s o f c r u c i a l in t e r i o r m o v e m e n t s , t h e l o w e r s e lf
naJs) f i g u r e s p r o m i n e n t l y i n a l l t h e i r a n a l y s e s . Naf s c a n g e n e r a t e i t s o w n
m o v e m e n t s . O t h e r i m m e d i a t e s o u rc e s a u t h o r s lis t v a r i o u s ly a s G o d ,
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T R A D I T I O N S O F S P I R I T U L G U I D A N C E 6 3
S a t a n , a g o o d a n g e l , r e a s o n , c e r t i t u d e , t h e sp i r it , t h e w o r l d a n d so
f o r t h . 8
T a k i n g n o t e o f a g iv e n m o v e m e n t s d u r a t i o n a llo w s th e g u i de t o
s p ec if y m o r e m i n u t e l y t h e e x p e r i e n c e s v a le n c e . S o m e t y p e s o c c u r o n l y
m o m e n t a r i l y a n d i n r a p i d s u c ce s si o n. O t h e r s p e r d u r e a n d , o n c e f e n d e d
o f f i f n e c e s s a r y , c o n t i n u e t o b a d g e r t h e s e e k e r a n d c a u s e i n n e r t u r m o i l
a n d a n x i e ty . S ti ll o t h e r s , o f a m o r e w e l c o m e s o rt , r e m a i n b u t m a k e t h e ir
p r e s e n c e f e lt v e r y s u b t l y , l i k e a n a n t c r a w l i n g a c r o s s a b l a c k s t o n e i n t h e
d e a d o f n i g h t .
I n t h e c a se o f t h os e m o v e m e n t s f r o m G o d t h a t o c c u r b ri ef ly a n d i n
s u c c e s s i o n , a u t h o r i t i e s o n t h e s u b j e c t e x p r e s s v a r i o u s o p i n i o n s a s t o
w h e t h e r o n e o u g h t t o a t t e n d t o t h e f i r s t o r t o t h e s e c o n d s u g g e s t i o n , o r
w h e t h e r b o t h a r e o f e q u a l c o g e n c y s in c e b o t h c o m e u l t im a t e l y f r o m G o d .
F i n a l ly , a m o v e m e n t s d u r a t i o n c a n s e r v e to i n d i c a te its so u r c e . F o r
e x a m p l e , d i v i n e l y g i v en t h o u g h t s s t a y b u t m o m e n t a r i l y so t h a t o n e m u s t
p a y k e e n a t t e n t io n . S a t a n i c w h i s p e r i n g s a s s au l t, w i t h d r a w a n d r e n e w t h e
a t ta c k . N o t i o n s o r i g i n a t i n g i n t h e l o w e r s e lf t e n d t o li n g e r, w h i le t h e l o w e r
s e lf r a t i o n a l i z e s a n d p r o c r a s t i n a t e s , u n t i l s o m e d e s i r e f i n d s s a t is f a c ti o n .
C o n t e n t v a r i e s c o n s i d e r a b l y , o f c o u r s e , a m o n g t h e s ev e r a l t y p e s o f
i n n e r m o v e m e n t . S a t a n i c w h i s p e r i n g s g e n e r a ll y p r o p o s e t o t h e l o w e r
s e lf s o m e s o r t o f c o n g e n i a l e a s e o r c o m f o r t , f o r th e l o w e r s e l f n a t u r a l l y
l o a th e s e f fo r t ( its n e m e s i s is t h e g r e a t e r s t r u g g l e ) . I m m e d i a t e l y f r o m t h e
l o w e r s e lf c o m e d e s i re s f o r a h o s t o f p h y s i c a l s a t i s fa c t io n s , h o n o u r , f a m e ,
w e a l t h , r e v e n g e a n d t h e li ke . D i v i n e i n t i m a t i o n s i n v a r i a b l y a n n o u n c e
t h e m s e l v e s a s s u c h b y t h e i r o b v i o u s c o n g r u e n c e w i th t h e re v e a l e d L a w ,
a n d b y t h e r e c i p i e n t s f i e rc e r e si s ta n c e t o t h e m . S o m e t y p e s o f s u g g e s t i o n
c a n c a r r y a m e s s a g e e i t h e r l a u d a b l e o r c e n s u r a b l e i n c o n t e n t . I n t h o s e
c as es , o n e m u s t ju d g e t h e m o v e m e n t s v a l u e b y t h e o t h e r c r it er ia .
S o m e l e v el s o f r e l i g i o u s e x p e r i e n c e s e e m c l o s e ly r e l a t e d t o t h e i n d i v i d -
u a l s e f f o rt a n d s t r iv i n g a n d a p p e a r t o p e r d u r e , s o t h a t o n e c o u l d
c h a r a c te r i ze t h e m a s p l a t e a u s . M u s l i m a u t h o r s h a v e n a m e d t he se
s t a t i o n s . M a n y i n n e r e x p e r i e n c e s , h o w e v e r , w i ll n o t y i e ld to p u r e l y
d i s c u rs i v e a n a ly s i s, n o r d o t h e y c o m e a n d g o m e r e l y b e c a u s e t h e s u b j e c t
w i ll s i t s o. M u s l i m w r i t e r s i n t e r e s t i n t h e a f fe c t iv e t o n e o f s u c h e x p e r i e n c e s
e v o l v e d i n to d e t a i le d i n v e n t o r i e s o f o t h e r e x p e r i e n c e s a t o n c e m o r e
e m o t i o n a l l y c h a r g e d a n d f le e ti n g, a n d a p p e a r i n g t o h a v e t h e i r o r i g i n i n
G o d r a t h e r t h a n i n h u m a n e ff or t. T h e s e t h e y h a v e c a ll ed s t a t e s . T h e y
i n c l u d e , f o r e x a m p l e , e x p e r i e n c e s o f d e s ir e , l o n g i n g , c o n t e n t m e n t a n d
n o n - d i s c u r s i v e i n t i m a t e k n o w l e d g e .
W h e r e a s t h e s t a t i o n s magamat, p l . o f magam) t y p i c a l l y t r a c e t h e
i t in e r a r y o f o n e w h o l a b o u r s t h r o u g h t h e p u r g a t i v e w a y o f mujahada
( s t r iv i n g ) , t h e s t a t e s ahwal, p l . o f ha0 f o r m a m a p o f t h e j o u r n e y
t h r o u g h t h e i l lu m i n a t i v e w a y o f mukashafa ( c o n t e m p l a t i v e v i s i o n ) . I d e a l l y ,
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6 4 T R A D I T I O N S O F S P I R I T U A L G U I D A N C E
t h e d i s t i n c t i o n s e r v es t o f ac i li ta t e a n a l y s i s ; o n e m u s t n o t t a k e i t t o o
l i t e r a l l y a s a c l e a r d i v i d e b e t w e e n e f f o r t a n d g r a c e .
W i t h s o m e b a c k g r o u n d o n t h e s o u rc e s a n d t h e m e s c e n tr a l t o t h e Is l am i c
t r a d i t i o n o f s p i ri tu a l g u i d a n c e a s a w h o l e , o n e m i g h t m o r e r e a d i ly a s se ss
t h e r o l e o f o n e c l as s ic p r a c t i t i o n e r o f t h e a r t .
I b n A b b a d o f R o n d a a s s p ir it u a l g u i d e
B o r n i n th e s o u th I b e r i a n h il l t o w n o f R o n d a , a b o u t s ix ty m il es f r o m
G i b r a l ta r , I b n ' A b b a d m i g r a t e d a s a b o y o f s e v e n t o M o r o c c o , t h e r e t o
s p e n d h i s l if e. T h e M a r i n i d D y n a s t y r u l e d h i s w o r l d , m o r e t e n t a t i v e l y
p e r h a p s t h a n t h e a v e r a g e c i t iz e n w o u l d h a v e l ik e d . S o c i al , e c o n o m i c a n d
p o l it ic a l c o n d i t io n s o f h i s d a y d i d n o t fill I b n ' A b b a d w i t h c o n f i d e n c e i n
t h e p r e s e n t o r h o p e f o r t h e f u t u r e ; b u t t h e n e e d f o r r e li g io u s r e f o r m h e
r e g a r d e d a s o f t h e h i g h e s t p r i o r i t y , f o r u p o n t h e r e n e w a l o f f a it h all e ls e
r e s t e d . S o l o n g a s i n a s o li t a ry h e a r t a s in g l e g r a i n o f f a i th r e m a i n e d , a ll
w a s n o t l o s t .
T o t h e n u r t u r i n g o f t h a t f a it h i n i n d i v id u a l p e r s o n s I b n A b b a d d e v o t e d
c o n s i d e r a b l e t i m e a n d e f f o rt . H i s f i f ty - f o u r e x t a n t l e tt e rs c o n s t i t u t e o n l y a
p o r t i o n o f h is to t al w r i tt e n w o r k . W i t h s o m e ' c o m m e n t a r y ' o f a s lig h tly
m o r e t e c h n ic a l n a t u r e f r o m h i s o t h e r w r i t i n g s , o n e c a n s u m m a r i z e t h e
m a j o r c o n c e r n s o f t h is s p i r it u a l g u i d e .
Central i ssues in the sp ir i tual l i fe
I n t h e i n d i v i d u a l p e r s o n , t h e d e a t h o f f a it h g o es h a n d i n h a n d w i t h
e g o c e n t r i sm o r p r e s u m p t u o u s n e s s . O n a l a r g e r s ca le , t h a t s am e p r e t e n -
t io u s n e s s r e s u lt s i n t h e f r a g m e n t a t i o n o f s o c i et y a n d u n d e r m i n e s r e li g io u s
c o m m u n i t y . A s a s u b t l e f o r m o f i d o la t r y ( ' h i d d e n s h i r k , ' s e t t i n g u p a
p a r t n e r w i t h G o d ' ) e g o c e n t r i c i t y t a k e s c o u n tl e ss f o r m s : f al se h u m i l i ty ,
f e a r o f d e a t h , a c ts o f p i e t y f o r t h e s a k e o f d i s p la y a n d a t h o u s a n d o t h e r
w a y s o f c l i n g i n g to o n e ' s o w n d e e d s a s a so u r c e o f u l t i m a t e s e c u r it y . T h e
s e e k e r m u s t s t r i v e t o c o u n t e r a c t t h e t e n d e n c y t o e g o c e n t r i c i t y t h r o u g h
t h e a tt it u d e s o f 's e r v a n t h o o d ' o r ' w o r s h i p f u l n e s s ' , a n d g r a t it u d e , w h i c h in
t u r n a r is e f r o m a n a w a r e n e s s o f o n e ' s r a d i c a l i n su f f ic i e n cy a n d n e e d i n e ss .
A u t h e n t i c s e l f - k n o w l e d g e a l o n e c a n k e e p t h e s e e k e r f r e e f r o m t h e
a n g u i s h o f s c r u p l e s a n d t h e d e l u s i o n o f f a ls e a s c e t ic i s m . E x c e s s i v e a u s t e r i t y
o r u n d u e g r ie f o v e r o n e ' s f a il u re s m e r e l y m a s k s o t h e rw i s e n a k e d e g o c e n -
t ri c it y . G e n u i n e a s c e ti c is m p o s e s th e n e v e r - e n d i n g c h a l le n g e o f d i s c e r n i n g
h o w G o d r e v e a ls h i m s e l f t o t h e s e e k e r a t t h is v e r y m o m e n t , r e g a r d le s s o f
h o w s t ro n g l y t h e s ee k e r fe els h e ' o u g h t ' t o b r e a k o u t a n d m o v e t o s o m e
o t h e r s p i r it u a l s ta te . G o d w o r k s h e r e a n d n o w , a n d a t te n t i v e n e s s t o t h a t
p r e s e n c e r e q u i r e s a l if e t im e o f d i s c ip l i n e .
I b n ' A b b a d c o u n s e l s h i s d i r ec t e e s t o r e g a r d t h e ' g r e a t e r s t r u g g l e ' o f
t h e p u r g a t i v e w a y a s t h e o t h e r s i d e o f t h e c o i n f r o m t h e ' c o n t e m p l a t i v e
v i s io n ' O f t h e i l l u m i n a ti v e w a y . B e t w e e n m a s o c h i s m a n d h e d o n i s m t h e
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TRADITIONS OF SPIRITUAL GUIDANCE 65
path winds. Debilitating anxiety, self-doubt, ennui, fear of abando nment
and the like signal the victory of egocentrism as surely as does the
unbridled search for pleasure. The greater struggle means never surren-
der ing oneself to either stasis, while contemplative vision allows the
individual to perceive God's utter transcendence and incomparable maj-
esty. in the very midst of personal and cosmic poverty and neediness.
Contemplative vision both presupposes and reinforces the greater strug-
gle's challenge to the aspirant to become a 'chi ld of this momen t' .
T h e r o l e o f t he s p i r i t u a l g u i d e
Ibn 'Abbad expresses considerable concern over how the seeker can
find guidance for the journey. During his time the emphasis in the study
of religious law seems to have shifted from personal contact with an
acknowledged authority to the study of secondary works. Apparently
under the influence of that trend, the use of classic writings in Sufism
seems similarly to have taken precedence over individual guidance. One
could claim as spiritual master (or as license-granting authority in religious
law) any author whose works he had read. Ibn bbad himself considers
as his 'masters of initiation ' in the Sufi Path the authors of the classic
works through which he first became acquainted with the Path. Even
when he was a disciple of the stern master Ibn shir, he maintained his
independence.
On the whole, Ibn ~Abbad's approach to the role of the spiritual guide
strikes one as quite balanced. He examines thoroughly in one of his
Letters (Letter XVI in
L e t t e r s o n th e S u f i P a th )
the question of whether a
seeker absolutely needs a living guide. He concludes that one does not
simply attach oneself to the right shaykh. God alone can provide the gift
of a truly sagacious director. God decides whether and when the seeker
will find personal guidance. One ought therefore neither expend too
much effort searching, nor simply despair of ever finding a guide, but
merely be prepared for the gift should it be granted.
God ultimately guides the heart with his light. In other words, direction
occurs from within the individual seeker. Ibn bbad acknowledges the
already ancient tradition that God guides individuals generally in either
of two ways. Some God leads along a predominantly active, purgative
way. Through long periods of discipline and discursive meditation, God
leads the 'wayfarer'
s a l i k )
upward, from the effects of the divine action
in the world, to an awareness of God' s names, to the contemplation of
the divine attributes and finally to the divine essence. Others God guides
along a predominantly passive or illuminative path. The 'attracted' or
'drawn' seeker
m a j d h u b )
advances as though whisked along from an
experience of God's essence to an awareness of all creatures as existing
'in God'. In other words, the first type sees God in creation; the second,
creation in God.
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T R A D I T I O N S O F S P I R I T U A L G U I D A N C E
F r o m t h e p s y c h o l o g i c a l p o i n t o f v i e w , g u i d a n c e i n v o l v e s h e l p i n g a
s e e k e r to d i s c e r n t h e v a r i e t y o f g u i se s u n d e r w h i c h t h e l o w e r s e lf , t h e
' w o r l d ' a n d t h e D e v i l p r e s e n t t h e m s e l v e s . A h e a l t h y i n d i v i d u a l k n o w s
t h e a r d u o u s n e s s o f s e l f - m a s t e r y . T h e o l o g i c a l l y s p e a k i n g , g u i d a n c e a i m s
a t g ra t it u d e t o G o d a n d a c k n o w l e d g e m e n t o f o n e ' s p o v e rt y . T h r o u g h
g r a t i t u d e o f t h e h e a r t , o n e a c k n o w l e d g e s G o d a s s o u r c e o f a ll g o o d s .
T h r o u g h g r a t it u d e o f t h e to n g u e , o n e s in g s G o d ' s p ra i se s . T h r o u g h
g r a t i t u d e o f a ll t h e s e n s e s, o n e e n g a g e s i n g o o d w o r k s a n d t h u s b r i n g s a
c o m m u n i t a r i a n d i m e n s i o n t o o n e ' s s p i r i t u a l l i f e .
I b n ' A b b a d i n h e r i t e d a h i g h l y s o p h i s t i c a t e d s p i r i t u a l a n t h r o p o l o g y ,
i n c lu d i n g a n a m p l e l e x ic o n o f fi ne ly n u a n c e d c o n c e p ts k e y e d t o t h e
s u b tl e ti e s o f p e r s o n a l r e l ig i o u s e x p e r i e n c e . I n a d d i t i o n t o th e r a n g e o f
' s t a t i o n s ' a n d ' s t a t e s ' m e n t i o n e d e a r l i e r , I b n ~ A b b ad p a y s s p e c ia l a t t e n t i o n
t o t h e e x p e r i e n c e s o f ' c o n t r a c t i o n ' a n d ' e x p a n s i o n ' g a b d a n d b a s t ) , t e r m s
t h a t o n e c o u l d a ls o t r a n s l a t e l o o se l y a s ' d e s o l a t i o n ' a n d ' c o n s o l a t i o n ' .
F o l l o w i n g th e l e a d o f h is s p i r it u a l a n c e s t o r I b n ' A t a A l l a h , I b n ~ A b ba d
b e l ie v e s t h a t e x p a n s i o n c a n b e m o r e d a n g e r o u s t h a n c o n t r a c ti o n , f o r t h e
f o r m e r m i g h t e n c o u r a g e t h e n o v i c e t o t h i n k h e h a s b r o u g h t t h i s p l e a s a n t
s t a te u p o n h i m s e l f . A s e e k e r c o u l d f o r g e t th a t G o d e f fe c t s a l l s u c h
c o n d i t i o n s .
C o n t r a c t i o n a n d e x p a n s i o n a p p e a r r a t h e r a s q u a l i t i e s t h a t b r o a d l y
c h a r a c t e r i z e a v a r i e t y o f e x p e r i e n c e s t h a n a s e x p e r i e n c e s i n t h e m s e l v e s ,
a l th o u g h o n e c o u ld c o n c e i v a b l y b e a w a r e o f c o n t r a c ti o n o r e x p a n s i o n
w i t h o u t f u r t h e r q u a l if i c a ti o n . H o p e a n d e x p a n s i o n , f e a r a n d c o n t r a c t i o n
o f t e n o c c u r a s p a i r s . I n a n y c a s e , t h e s p i r i t u a l g u i d e s t r i v e s t o t e a c h t h e
s e e k e r , f i rs t, a w a r e n e s s o f t h e i n n e r s u c c e s s i o n o f s t a t i o n s a n d s t a te s , a n d
s e c o n d , h o w t o i n t e p r e t t h e m a s in d i c a t o r s o f h o w G o d h a s c h o s e n t o
w o r k i n t h e s e e k e r a t a g i v e n m o m e n t .
A b o u t t h e n a t u r e o f t h e r e l at io n s h i p b e t w e e n s h a y k h a n d a s p i r a n t , I b n
( A b b a d h a s s e v e r a l i m p o r t a n t t h i n g s t o s a y . T h e s h a y k h m u s t t r e a t t h e
s e e k e r l ik e a so n ; t h e s e e k e r , i n t u r n , m u s t p r a c t i c e d o c i li ty , c o n c e a l i n g
n o t h i n g . A v o i d i n g a u t h o r i t a r i a n i s m a t a ll c o s t, t h e g u i d e w o r k s t o u n d e r -
s t a n d w h a t t h e d is c ip l e h a s s a id b e f o r e r e n d e r i n g a n o p i n i o n . I b n ' A b b a d
k n e w o f t w o t y p e s o f s h a y k h . S e e k e r s w h o n e e d e d b a s i c c h a r a c t e r
f o r m a t i o n a n d s c h o o li n g i n t h e r e q u i r e m e n t s o f t h e r e v e a le d L a w a n d
t h e S uf i P a t h w o u l d d o b e t t e r w i t h a n ' i n s t r u c t i n g ' s h a y k h . O n e c o u l d
e v e n e n l is t th e s e r v i c e s o f s e v e r a l s u c h g u i d e s s i m u l t a n e o u s l y .
A n ' e d u c a t i n g ' s h a y k h , o n t h e o t h e r h a n d , t a u g h t b y e x a m p l e a n d
p e r s o n a l a s s o c i a t i o n r a t h e r t h a n b y m o r e c o n v e n t i o n a l p e d a g o g i c a l
m e t h o d s . T h i s l a t te r t y p e o f g u i d e w o u l d t e a c h a s e e k e r a l r e a d y t h u s
t u t o r e d i n t h e b a s ic s o f t h e tr a d i t i o n h i s p e r s o n a a n d p r i v a t e i n v o c a t i o n
d h i k r , a m a n t r a - l i k e w o r d o r p h r a s e i n t e n d e d t o a d d r e s s a p a r t i c u l a r
d i sc ip l e ~ u n i q u e n e e d s ) , l e a d h i m t h r o u g h t h e r e t r e a t o f ~ or ty d a y s
c h ~ 1 2 a ) ,
r e g u l a t e h i s d a i ly o r d e r ( s l e e p i n g , e a t i n g , t i m e s o f s i le n c e a n d s o f o r t h ) ,
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T R A D I T I O N S O F S P I R I T U A L G U I D A N C E 6 7
a n d p r e s c r i b e s p e c if i c d i s c i p l i n a r y a c t iv i ti e s . A s e e k e r c o u l d a s s o c i a te w i t h
o n l y o n e e d u c a t i n g s h a y k h a t a t im e . I n I b n A b b a d s e s t im a t i o n , a
s ee k er c o u ld m a k e m o r e r a p id p r o g r es s u n d e r a s h a y k h w h o m G o d h a s
d r a w n t h a n u n d e r a w a y f a r e r .
I b n A b b a d s le t te r s i n d ic a t e t h a t s u b j e c t m a t t e r f o r s p i ri tu a l d i r e c t i o n
c o u l d i n c l u d e v i r t u a l l y a n y t h i n g i n th e s e e k e r s e x p e r i e n c e t h a t h e p e r -
c e i v ed a s r e la t i n g i n a n y w a y w i t h h i s r e l a t io n s h i p w i t h G o d . S i g n if i c an t
m a t e r i a l t h u s e n c o m p a s s e d e x p e r i e n c e s o f s u c ce s s o r f a il u re , c l a ri ty o r
b e w i l d e r m e n t , g r i e f o r e l a ti o n , h o p e o r f e ar , l o v e o r h a te . I f a c o r r e s p o n -
d e n t e x p r e s s e d a p o w e r f u l d e s i re t o m o v e o u t o f h is p r e s e n t s ta t e, I b n
e A b b a d e n c o u r a g e d h i m t o s ta y w i t h i t u n t il h e a p p r e c i a t e d h o w t h a t
s ta te , h o w e v e r d is t as te f u l, c o u l d s p e a k a w o r d f r o m t h e L o r d . T h e s e e ke r
n e e d s , i n s h o r t , t o l e a r n t o t r u s t h i s e x p e r i e n c e , a n d f e n d o f f t h e t e m p t a t i o n
t o w o r r y t h a t h e s h o u l d b e e x p e r i e n c i n g s o m e t h i n g e ls e.
P e r s o n a l g r o w t h is p e r h a p s t h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t c r i t e r i o n f o r j u d g i n g
t h e s u c c es s o f t h e r e l a t i o n s h ip o f d i r e c t o r t o d i r e c te e . A m o n g t h e v a r i o u s
t o u c h s t o n e s I b n ~ A b b ad u s e d t o a ss es s g r o w t h , h e r e g a r d e d t h e b r o a d
c a te g or ie s o f p r o p e r d e m e a n o u r ( h u s h a l - a d a b ) a n d t h i n k i n g w e l l o f
G o d ( h U S h a z - z a n n ) a s t h e c r u c i a l in d ic e s . H e r e o n e i n e v i t a b l y m a n i f e s t e d
t h e f r u it s o r l a c k o f t h e f u n d a m e n t a l v a l u e o f g r a t i t u d e ( w h i c h f u n c t i o n e d
f o r I b n A b b a d m u c h t h e w a y l o ve d o e s i n C h r i s t ia n t h o u g h t ) , a n d t h e
t o t al a p p r o a c h , t o lif e t h a t h e c a ll s c o n t e m p l a t i v e v i s i o n . T h e c l e a r e r
t h a t v i s i o n , t h e g r e a t e r t h e g r a t i t u d e a n d t h e s m a l l e r t h e d a n g e r o f
e g o c e n t r i c i ty . U l t i m a t e l y , s p i ri tu a l m a t u r i t y a p p e a r s i n t h e a b il i t y t o
t h i n k w e ll o f G o d , t h a t i s, a l w a y s a l l o w i n g th e C r e a t o r t h e b e n e fi t o f
t h e d o u b t a n d r e f u s i n g to w a l l o w i n th e c o n v i c t i o n th a t o n e h a s G o d
d o w n t o a p r e d i c t a b l e p a t t e r n .
F i n a ll y , I b n A b b a d e x h i b i t e d p r e - e m i n e n t l y t h e sp i ri tu a l g u i d e s v i r t u e
s ine qua non: r e t i c e n c e a b o u t h i s q u a l i f i c a t io n s a s a s p ir i tu a l g u i d e . H e
d i d n o t c o n s i d e r h i m s e l f a n a u t h o r i t y o n m a t t e r s s p ir it u a l o r r e l a t in g t o
r e li g io u s la w . N e i t h e r d i d h e p r o t e s t t o o m u c h ; o n l y e n o u g h t o le a v e t h e
m o d e r n r e a d e r c o n v i n c e d th a t I b n A b b a d m u s t h a v e b e e n a n e x ce ll en t
s p i r i t u a l g u i d e .
J o h n R e n a r d S J
NOT E S
I Good translations of this type are: Razi, Najm ad-Din Daya,
The path of God s bondsmen,
trans Harold Algar (N ew York: Caravan, 1982); H ujw iri ,
The Kashf al-Mahjub,
t rans
R. A. N icholson (London : Luzac, 1976).
2 See for example, A .J . A rberry s translation o f
Discourses of Ru mi
(New York: Samuel
W eiser; 1972), and Paul Jackson s translation o f M aneri s discourses,
Khwan-i Pur N i mat:
a table laden with goo d things
(Delhi: Idarah-i Ada biyat-i Delli, 1986).
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8
T R A D I T I O N S O F S P I R I T U A L
G U I D A N C E
3 S e e f or e x a m p l e I b n a l - A r a b i s I n s t r u c t i o n s t o a p o s t u l a n t , t r a n s la t e d b y A . J ef f re y i n
h i s e d i t i o n o f p r i m a r y s o u r c e t r a n s l a t i o n s , A re ad e r o n I s l a m ( T h e H a g u e : M o u t o n , 1 96 2) ;
M . M i l s o n s t r an s l a ti o n o f A b u N a j i b S u h r a w a r d i s K i t a b A d a b a l - M u r i d i n , e n t i t l e d i n
E n g l i s h A S u f i ru le f o r n o v i c e s ( C a m b r i d g e , M A : H a r v a r d , 1 97 5) ; a n d G . B o e w e r i n g s
t r a n s l a ti o n o f A n s a r i s s h o r t t re a ti s e, a l o n g w i t h a b r i e f s u r v e y o f t h e g e n r e , i n T h e
A d a b
l i t e r a t u re o f c l a ss i c al S u f i s m : A n s a r i s c o d e o f c o n d u c t , i n B a r b a r a M e t c a l f, e d . ,
M o r a l
conduc t and au thor it y : t he p lace o f Ad ab in South A s ia n I s lam
( B e r k el e y : U n i v e r s i t y o f C a l i f o rn i a
P r e s s , 1 9 8 4 ) , p p 6 2 - 8 7 .
4 S e e P a u l J a c k s o n s t r an s l a ti o n o f M a n e r i s
The hundred Le t t e rs
( N e w Y o r k : P a u l i s t P r e ss ,
1 98 0) ; A . H . A b d e l K a d e r , t r a n s , The l if e personali ty and w ri t ings o f a l -Junayd ( L o n d o n :
L u z a c , 1 9 7 6) ; S h a y k h a l -~ A r a b i D a r q a w i , Let ters o f a Suf i master, t r a n s T i t u s B u r c k h a r d t
( L o n d o n : P e r e n n i a l B o o k s , 1 96 9) ; a n d I b n A b b a d o f R o n d a s
Le t t e rs on the Su f i Path , a
t r a n s l a t i o n o f s ix t e e n le t t e rs , w i t h a n e x t e n s i v e in t r o d u c t i o n o n t h e m e s a n d s e t t i n g o f I b n
c A b b a d s sp i ri t u al i ty , b y J o h n R e n a r d ( M a h w a h , N e w J e r s e y : P a u l i s t P r e s s , 1 98 6 ).
5 R a z i ,
op. c i t . ,
p p 2 4 3 - 2 5 4 .
6 I b i d . p p 2 5 5 - 2 6 7 .
7 B o e w e r i n g G . :
Th e myst ical v ision o f existence in c lassical Isl am
( B e r li n : d e G r u y t e r , 1 9 8 0 ) ,
p 2 5 3 .
8 F o r e x c e l le n t a n a l y s i s o f t h e s e a n d r e l a te d i s s u e s s e e P e t e r A w n s S a t a n s t ra g e d y a n d
redempt ion: Ib l i s i n Su~ psychology
( Le id en : B r i l l , 1 9 8 3 ) , e sp . p p 6 4 f f .